Introduction
The aviation industry as a strategically important sector in almost any country performs many different functions that are not limited to civilian passenger transportation. For decades, aviation has been a significant resource in the military sphere, and today, the use of high-performance fighters, unmanned aerial vehicles, and other flying equipment proves progress in this area. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, this industry was not developed enough to speak of it as a key component of tactical military tasks. After World War I, General Guilio Douhet who predicted the colossal success of heavy aircraft assumed that all military interventions would be based on aerial bombardments with irreparable losses and damage to an enemy. The aim of this work is to evaluate this theory by using examples of the development of airpower over the past decades. Such topics will be reviewed as changes in the aircraft industry of the 20th century, new opportunities obtained by expanding capabilities, as well as examples of military operations proving the relevance of Douhet’s theory. The analysis of significant innovations may help prove the proposed concept and determine its importance in tactical solutions.
The growth of opportunities in the aviation industry was largely achieved due to the development of the technical base. In particular, Waters and Cadou (2015) note that the introduction of the fuel cells of solid oxide nature made it possible to expand the opportunities of aircraft of the past and expand their capabilities significantly. This step is logical because improving the speed and, consequently, the duration of stay in the air played a crucial role in promoting this industry and developing the equipment of both civilian and military aircraft. Unlike modern flying models, which can be driven by the energy of electricity, century-old designers could only use combustible fuel (Williamson, 2014). Nevertheless, this did not become an obstacle to the development of engineering, and the success demonstrated by military pilots in various hot spots proves the relevance of aircraft designers’ activities. Taylor (2018) provides examples of operations in Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and other regions where conflicts occurred in the 20th century and argues that massive air attacks were the main methods of battle. Therefore, the outcomes achieved over several decades were obvious and significant.
Main body
The principles of financing the aviation industry have also undergone changes. Over the 20th century, the costs of military aircraft steadily increased, which was caused by a large number of armed conflicts and the need to expand weapons (Kirkpatrick, 2019). The threat posed by aggressor countries prompted many states to enlarge stocks of military aircraft, thereby protecting national interests and confronting external threats. Improving the technological base was natural because, in conditions of the mass modernization of the military-industrial complex, innovations were inevitable. At the same time, as Bongers and Torres (2014) argue, despite a unified strategy for replenishing heavy weapons, the principles of warfare were different. The authors compare the approaches of the USA and the USSR in improving their aviation capabilities and note that piloting skills, financial capabilities, and, particularly, design solutions differed significantly (Bongers & Torres, 2014). Both powers were on the leader list, but despite allied actions during World War II, the Cold War in the second half of the 20th century led to an arms race (Bongers & Torres, 2014). Therefore, the achievements of airpower are largely due to the motives of individual states.
For the most part of the 20th century, new capabilities appeared in aircraft, which has increased airpower. For instance, Deptula (2014) gives an example of fighters and calls them strikers with a sensory function, which was previously impossible, but today, they are a common model. In addition to technical specifications, related areas have also developed significantly. In particular, the aviation communications and logistics industries have advanced sufficiently to create a stable tracking and control system for all flying objects (Burmaoglu & Sarıtas, 2017). As an example of unmanned technologies, de Sousa et al. (2015) mention numerous military operations where remotely controlled vehicles were key participants. Such a development of military aviation became possible due to the efforts and funds invested in this sphere. Cost-effective fuel-saving innovative systems and the transition to electric engines were a breakthrough and allowed reducing the costs of the military-industrial complex by equipping engine mechanisms (Madonna, Giangrande & Galea, 2018). As a result, according to Trebat and De Medeiros (2014), investments in both civilian and military aviation helped these sectors to develop and enhance air power significantly.
As a theory that proves the rapid development of combat aviation and predicts the expansion of military capabilities with its help, the idea of General Guilio Douhet may be analyzed. Agoratus (2015) describes this hypothesis and interprets it as an unspoken tactical principle that implies massive bombardments from the air as the key and only destructive force. The author notes that this strategy manifested itself during World War II when American troops inflicted crushing blows on enemies in different regions – Germany, Japan, and other hotbeds of conflict (Agoratus, 2015). This period marked the beginning of the new era of military aviation that increased its power and became one of the most dangerous instruments of war. As an example of a successful operation, Hooker (2016) mentions “Desert Storm” conducted in 1991 and demonstrating the overwhelming threat of massive bombardments. Iraqi air defense systems were powerless due to the speed and onset of the attack. This example makes it clear that utilizing aircraft may be decisive in the course of a military conflict, and due to the development of this sector over the past decades, air threats have become extremely dangerous.
The United States was not the only power whose military leadership recognized the importance of air power timely. Chi Man (2019) describes the conflicts in the east and gives an example of the battle of 1937 when Japanese aircraft operated successfully and destroyed significant forces of Chinese troops through massive bombardment. In general, Douhet’s theory became widespread, and its provisions entered the world practice of military tactics. For instance, preliminary artillery shelling from an attacking side is a tactical principle based on the power of airstrikes and their destructive force destabilizing enemies’ positions. Kiras (2015) remarks that Douhet’s theory was hypothetical and intuitive since General expressed his opinion on the development of aviation after World War I. Nevertheless, this assumption turned out to be true, and numerous military operations of the 20th century prove this fact. Many researchers of that era put forward theories concerning the future of aviation, but Douhet’s idea of bombing according to a preliminary strategy has become one of the justified tactical steps (Marsh, Kenny & Joslyn, 2015). Thus, the influence of airpower and its role in the conduct of hostilities were correctly predicted.
Douhet’s theory proved its relevance in many battles and was valid. Leece (2017) mentions the Battle of Britain that took place in 1940 and notes that aerial bombardment was a key attacking force. The fierce battle in Pearl Harbor, the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and other examples of large-scale hostilities involving military aircraft confirm that air fire was the dominant attacking power (Chourchoulis, 2016). Enemies’ failures to resist such a threat have become a decisive factor in many armed conflicts. Although the failures of some operations were witnessed, for instance, “Enduring Freedom” in Afghanistan when the aerial bombing was not effective enough to eliminate opponents, isolated examples cannot indicate the irrelevance of Douhet’s theory (Visbal, 2015). Despite the fact that General assessed the prospects for the development of aviation from the standpoint of neutrality supported by Italy before the outbreak of World War I, his assumptions were correct (Strachan, 2019). The legacy of military aviation of the 20th century has become decisive in the development of modern aircraft manufacturing (Col, 2015). Therefore, Douhet’s ideas were valid and justified by historic examples proving that military success depended largely on aviation.
Conclusion
Douhet’s theory related to the significant development of airpower in the 20th century has been justified, and numerous examples of battles involving military aircraft prove this assumption and explain its unconditional relevance. Valuable engineering solutions and innovations made it possible to modernize insufficiently fast and maneuverable models, which became the key to strengthening the combat power of many countries and enhancing their military-industrial complex. As a result of this reinforcement, decisions on investment in this industry were justified by the need for protection. Due to the innovations that were promoted in the 20th century, new aircraft appeared, and today, such high-tech transport as unmanned flying vehicles, electric-powered fast aircraft, and other models are common. The assessment of military conflicts involving combat airpower proves that Douhet’s theory was justified, and during World War II, the tactics of the strategic bombing were widespread. On the examples of the development of major countries’ military power, approaches to the strategic strengthening of the flying base are demonstrated. In general, the progress was the result of competent work in the aircraft manufacturing field and the relevance of designers’ innovative ideas.
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