Introduction
The “Red Brigades” and “Boko Haram” are widely known terrorist organizations within their country and abroad. Despite these groups’ different times of origin and development, their actions, motives, and goals are the ruthless personification of evil, destruction, and death. The two terrorist organizations have a common goal and motive – changing the concept of events inside their native region and go beyond it. However, they still have different goals and ways of setting implementation and achieving.
Brief History, Motivating Ideology and Strategic Objectives
“Italian Red Brigades”
The “Italian Red Brigades” (Brigate Rosse) was an underground left-wing terrorist organization that appeared in Milan in the late 1960s of the last century. The impetus for the emergence of an organization engaged in armed propaganda was the terrorist attack on Piazza Fontana in Milan in 1969. Many considered it the beginning of open terrorism on the state, which tried to suppress opposition sentiments in the country. The founders, organizers, and leaders of this organization are Renato Curcio, Margherita Kagol, and Alberto Franceschini (Sonmez 482). In the prime of life, about 25 thousand people in the “Red Brigades” were engaged in partisan and semi-legal activities. The organization’s main areas of activity were the industrial zones of Milan, Turin, Genoa.
The terrorist group combined nonviolent methods with terrorist actions, such as conducting propaganda and creating underground organizations in factories and educational institutions to commit “proletarian revenge.” At first, they were radicals only in the press, and until 1969 they led discussions about the proletarian revolution, about the state of Italy and Europe as a whole (Sonmez 482-483). Having appeared “officially,” the “Red Brigades” declared their most crucial goal that the group members aimed to create a revolutionary state due to the armed struggle and the withdrawal of Italy from NATO (Slike 87-97). Thus, “Brigate Rosse” motivating ideology was the set of Russian and Chinese revolutions’ experiences, as well as Marxism-Leninism and Sovietization concept (Petrocchi 271). The strategic objective they wanted to achieve was revolutionary coups inside the Italian state through the prism of terror, sabotage, kidnappings, and murders (Sonmez 481-488). In fact, the terrorist group wanted to “undermine the foundations of bourgeois society” to build a new revolutionary society in the future. Curcio drew ideas from the writings of Marx and Mao and said that the “Red Brigades” ideologically date back to the Chinese Cultural Revolution. He considered the struggle waged by the participants to be part of the struggle for the cause of the proletariat waged in all European countries.
The organization appeared in Italy amid the intensification of the country’s political life and the growing tension between right-wing and left-wing radical groups. The leaders and participants of the “Red Brigades” were convinced that in order to build a “fair” society, it was necessary to use brute force and brutality against the authorities of capital. At first, the “Red Brigades” were engaged in armed propaganda: they set fires, kidnapped people, distributed leaflets. They carried out extensive propaganda activities among students and workers but increasingly turned to sabotage work at enterprises, carried out explosions at some factories, and abducted business people and industrialists.
It seemed to the “Reds” that it was precisely the increased pressure on the states that would contribute to achieving their ultimate goal. “Brigate Rosse” systematically destroyed the system of domination of the Communist Party and trade unions over the working class of Italy. The objects of terror were representatives of the factory administration, businessmen, trade union activists, and since 1974 – government officials, politicians, law enforcement officers, journalists. The most famous action in the organization’s history is the abduction and murder of the former Prime Minister of Italy Aldo Moro in the spring of 1978 (Sonmez 484). After that, large-scale actions of the organization and the objects of attacks became more active: schools, universities, transport. “Red Brigades” barely survived the end of the Cold War after the split in 1984 and the arrests or flight of most of the group’s members. In the 1980s, the group was almost entirely defeated by the efforts of Italian law enforcement agencies, which arrested members of the group significantly assisted. In the 1990s and 2000s, the name “Red Brigades” was used by several terrorist groups in Italy.
“Boko Haram”
On the contrary, “Boko Haram” is a “younger” grouping compared with “Brigades” that originated in the Nigerian state of Borno in 2002. The full name of the grouping from the beginning of its existence is “people committed to the teachings of the Prophet about preaching and Jihad” (Nnorom 83). In 2015, the sect leaders announced the organization’s renaming to the “West African Province of the Islamic State.” Actually, “Boko Haram” is a national name that can be translated as “Western education is forbidden.”, transmitting the central message of the sect’s ideology (Omenma et al. 3). In fact, its activities are connected with the Islamic preacher Abu Yusuf Muhammad Yusuf (Adelaja 36). Yusuf rallied supporters of radical Islam around him and began to make calls for the proclamation of a Sharia state in Nigeria, the prohibition of Western education, and the intensification of the fight against corruption. Originating in Borno State, the movement soon spread to the neighboring states of Yobe and Adamawa, and after them, to the entire north of Nigeria. Today, the organization’s militants operate not only in Nigeria but also carry out raids in Niger, Chad, and Cameroon.
The motivating ideology of “Boko Haram” is the seizure of power in Nigeria and creating their Islamic state in that region and its distribution abroad. The strategic objectives they want to achieve are taking over leadership, introducing and disseminating Sharia and eradicating all Western elements throughout Nigeria as part of the initiation of mass riots and destruction. The group members are engaged in this activity to seize power to reorganize political concepts within the country in their own way, subjugate citizens to the organization’s laws, rules, and norms.
At first, the militants of this organization mainly abducted people and made attempts on national and local politicians. But then they moved on to provocative actions aimed at a large number of victims. The beginning of major terrorist acts of Boko Haram is July 2009 (Adelaja 36). Mohammed Yusuf attempted an insurgency to create an Islamic state in the country’s north, governed based on Sharia law (Upal and Cusack 421–444). However, such an “operation” failed with a crash; the participants of the riots were arrested, and Mohammed Yusuf himself later died under unclear circumstances. Currently, the Boko Haram group is headed by Abubakar Shekau.
In 2010, Boko Haram re-asserted itself with a series of high-profile terrorist attacks and attacks on political opponents and civilians. Militants still assault secular schools and other educational institutions, police stations, churches, as well as the usual crowded places. Nigerian politicians and Muslim spiritual leaders who criticize radical Islamists also become targets of such attacks. The group’s militants regularly resort to hostage-taking to their subsequent release for ransom or sale into slavery and forced marriage. Since 2014, “Boko Haram” has been recognized as a terrorist organization by the UN Security Council. Its activities are prohibited not only in Nigeria but also in several other major countries. In 2015, the Nigerian Air Force inflicted a significant defeat on “Boko Haram” and significantly reduced the territory under its control (United Nations Security Council 2). As a response, the militants began to establish their bases in neighboring countries with Nigeria, primarily in the Lake Chad area – many innocent people died. At the moment, there are potential representatives of this terrorist organization and are still under suspicion. There is a considerable probability that in the near future, they will try to remind themselves again.
Key Leadership, Targeting, Weapons Choices, Financial Support and Recruiting
Activities
“Italian Red Brigades”
The founding father of the “Reds” is an undergraduate student Renato Curcio, inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Marx and Mao Zedong. The key leadership model of “Brigate Rosse” is expressed in the dissemination and propaganda of ideas with calls to fight against capitalism, suggestion, and inspiration of young people for “great feats” (Re 275-288). The main leaders of the terrorist group wanted to gather a large, strong and reliable team of followers to achieve common goals. The organization’s participants started with the distribution of leaflets but then switched to such extreme measures as burning cars and mass killings. In their opinion, these are the best way to attract the attention of all people who are not indifferent to the motherland. With shots and self-sacrifice, the fighters of the “Red Brigades” hoped to gain the sympathy of the masses but achieved the opposite and generated hatred, fear, and universal condemnation.
To achieve the proper goals, the “brigades” engaged in a particular recruiting activity. Skillful propaganda, terrorist attacks that went unpunished, demagoguery about equality, brotherhood, justice, and revolution attracted the protest part of young people to the “Red Brigades” (Re 275-288). In addition, to cultivate a revolutionary consciousness among people, the “Reds” often printed passport data and addresses of managers and workers suspected of “unscrupulous” activities in leaflets.
The organization’s participants were mainly targeted at the “big fishes”. In fact, they “hunted” politicians, business leaders, and law enforcement officers (Clark 21). At a particular historical stage, the movement switched to the state as a whole and began to terrorize people who were not directly involved in the political sphere. For example, the “Red Brigades” took responsibility for crimes related to journalists, prosecutors, and judges who condemned and handed down guilty verdicts to associates.
The initial organization in the 70s was financed by illegal actions and measures, like raids and kidnapping for ransom. As practice shows, the “Reds” often took prominent politicians and businessmen hostage to get a ransom to finance the terrorist group. Most likely, “Brigate Rosse” also received financial and humanitarian support from outside from other terrorist groups (Petlák and Mareš 870-876). The “Red Brigades” preferred firearms and explosives in the choice of weapons. In fact, the group had no problems with the “tools for threats” because they had great international connections. The “Red Brigades” relied on the support of the state security agencies of Czechoslovakia, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (Petlák and Mareš 870-876). The group also received firearms and explosives from the Middle East using heroin smuggling channels.
“Boko Haram”
The key leadership concept of “Boko Haram” is expressed in the struggle for leadership and power over Nigeria, neighboring states, and citizens’ minds through the ways of spreading influence, power, strength, and dissemination of religious dogmas. The organization’s goal is to gain leadership positions, spread Sharia through methods of intimidation, threats to citizens, not from the point of view of peaceful negotiations or even messianic activities (Upal and Cusack 421–444). Thus, the idea of power, potency, and leadership of the organization is carried out with the help of the blackmail of the authorities and the population by the danger of loss of life. Members of the sect threaten to cause significant property damage or the onset of other socially dangerous consequences, carried out to violate public safety and influence the decision-making by the authorities beneficial to terrorists.
Recruiting activities in the organization take place in the following ways. Relatives and acquaintances of the group members can join “Boko Haram.” Some people who decide to join the Islamist sect either want to make much money on murders and carjacking on behalf of the organization or take revenge on Christians and the government of Nigeria. Moreover, “Boko Haram” kidnaps adult citizens and children and may recruit them as rebels (Omenma et al. 5). “Boko Haram” targets both civilians and ordinary people, as well as influential people and high-ranking officials. Since 2009, thousands people have suffered from the actions of a terrorist organization, and millions of citizens have been forced to leave Nigeria since the beginning of the bloody events (Adelaja 36). With the beginning of terrorist acts, the group repeatedly ill-treatment schoolchildren, priests, police officers, military personnel, and political figures.
The financial background of “Boko Haram” is carried out at the expense of the proceeds from the ransom of hostages and fees from the population. The Islamist group did not conduct active political activity at the initial stages, limiting itself to sending preachers and recruiting supporters. Some Nigerian politicians have provided Boko Haram with all kinds of support, including financial support. Firearms, especially stolen ones, are the primary choice in the weapons of the Islamist sect. “Boko Haram,” as a rule, attacks private military territories and privatizes the property necessary in combat conditions. The movement participants do not buy weapons and ammunition but take them away from the armies.
Political, Social, and Economic “Enablers”, Peer Competitors, Successes and Failures
“Italian Red Brigades”
There are several aspects that have indirectly or directly affected the activities and operating environment of each of the groups. The following factors are the main incentive for forming the “Red Brigades” and implementing its radical measures. As for political ideas, in the 70s, most citizens experienced severe consequences after the Second World War. In addition, the fall of Benito Mussolini’s regime took place in Italy; the country became a parliamentary republic and adopted a new Constitution. The economic factors that influenced the group’s activities were instability and the fall in life quality that have significantly increased leftist sentiments in society and distrust of the government (Slike 87-97). Thus, “Brigate Rosse” appeared, who did not want to put up with the existing problems inside the country. From the point of view of the social background, the “Reds” wanted to improve the life of the working class and overthrow the bourgeoisie. Peer competitor of the “Red Brigades” at the 70s was “Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari” – ultra-right organization.
Undoubtedly, “Brigate Rosse” made a lot of noise and fuss, and the result turned out to be one of the worst. “Red brigades” could not make visible progress in their country but only escalated the situation even more. The group members did not have widespread influence in the major cities of Italy but operated mainly in Milan. Additionally, their victims were “middle-class” politicians and entrepreneurs who moved alone and did not have their guards or means of self-defense. At least, this means that such people are relatively easy prey for terrorists, not marked by a high degree of success. Every year, fewer and fewer people wanted to be in the ranks of the shooters of the “Red Brigades.” Subsequently, the field of activity and the pillars of the organization are narrowed, international contacts are cut off. Officially, the “Red Brigades” did not break up, and at the moment, there are several more representatives of new organizations with similar motives, but they no longer have the same influence as in the 70s-80s in Italy.
“Boko Haram”
On the other hand, the main impetus for executing “Boko Haram’s” activities is mainly social in nature. It is worth noting that Africa is a multifaceted and versatile country because more than 3 thousand languages are spoken on this continent. In fact, there are quite a large number of different ethnic tribes, peoples, and groupings. Moreover, since the time of slavery, the dominance of European countries over the corresponding parts of the African continent has been established here, where European languages and culture were imposed. Such “diversity” and disagreement to accept other people’s norms and customs, respectively, can be a source of conflict (Adelaja 39). Consequently, each of the ethnic groups wants to lead an unspoken but persistent struggle for leadership (Iyekekpolo 750-753). From the point of view of politics, the likelihood of a conflict on the part of a terrorist organization in Nigeria has occurred due to frequent changes and amendments to the constitution, laws (Adelaja 39). Within the framework of the economic concept, the democratic government in Nigeria did not meet citizens’ expectations and did not lead to a better path towards overcoming poverty and corruption (Iyekekpolo 750-753). Thus, in the wake of widespread disillusionment, “Boko Haram” appeared.
Peer Competitors of “Boko Haram” is “ISWAP” – the organization with which “Boko Haram” previously cooperated, but the leaders of the factions disagreed on specific issues. The “success” of Boko Haram at a certain point was that the members of this group were able to seize power and control over large territories. They developed an impressive fighting ability and became a real threat even to the security forces. The primary “failure” of “Boko Haram” is that the leader of the group, who strenuously tried to eliminate the authorities, eventually allowed himself to be killed through other militants.
Comparative Assessment
In my opinion, “Boko Haram” was more robust in their “period of prosperity,” in contrast to “Italian Red Brigades” for the following reasons. “Boko Haram” became one of the symbols of evil, which caused a broad public resonance. In a short time, the group was able to take control of many areas and create a reasonably powerful army. Rumors about the terrorist activities of this sect posed a threat not only in Africa but also beyond its borders. Indeed, the “Red Brigades” gained ominous fame in the 70s for the murder of government adviser Marco Biaggi. However, the grouping did not have such widespread influence at the level of their region and several other states in contrast to “Haram.” In addition, the Islamist sect has carried out more raids, and murders, plunging Nigeria and neighboring regions into chaos, turmoil, and anarchy. Subsequently, many citizens were forced to leave their native country.
What Counter Terrorists Should Learn from Studying These Groups
In my opinion, counterterrorism professionals should learn from studying these groups in greater detail the following aspects. First of all, the security system in any country should be at a decent level, constantly upgraded and improved. Thus, no one expected internal conflicts in Africa, and if security personnel had been better armed and trained, it would have been possible to minimize or avoid unnecessary victims at the initial stages of terrorism. Secondly, states and anti-terrorist specialists should take care of police patrols that will keep order on the streets in every city district. So, in the case of the “Red Brigades,” several leaders and political figures would be alive if law enforcement officers conducted their activities on the streets.
Conclusion
“Red Brigades” and “Boko Haram” are the most radical and irreconcilable groups that gained ominous fame at a particular historical moment with the help of raids, attacks, destruction of property, and murders. Undoubtedly, the two groups have made a comprehensive public response and an unprecedented political effect, yet their goals and objectives are different. “Red Brigades” fought primarily for justice and providing a better life for the working class. At the same time, “Haram” wanted to subjugate all people to their will without exception, to turn them into Islamists. Indeed, both organizations resorted to cruel measures, but they chose their victims based on a number of their own reasons. Despite this, the desire to change the world for the “better” and the desire to achieve wide attention through mass protests and performances – this is what unites them.
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