Introduction
Over the years, the world has experienced many acts of terrorism resulting in massive loss of life and property. Terror movements are formed by people who share a common ideology, be it political or social. Others are inspired by specific issues, such as environmental concerns, and strive to pressure the government and public to enact or repeal particular policies to meet their interests. Today, some of the renowned terror groups include the Islamic State, al-Qaeda, Taliban, Alshabaab, Muslim Brotherhood, and Boko Haram (“Reports on International Terrorism”). The movements utilize multiple strategies to gain new followers. This may be through spreading online propaganda or direct recruitment by the movements’ members or leaders. The terror groups mostly target and radicalize people with financial challenges. However, an individual’s social background and family dynamics may increase their chances of being radicalized. To fight terrorism, governments worldwide have allocated massive resources to detect and thwart any planned terror activities before they occur.
The History of the Islamic Brotherhood and the Japanese Red Army
The Islamic Brotherhood, commonly known as the Muslim Brotherhood (al-Ikhwayn al-Muslimun), is among the most prominent Islamic organizations globally. Its activities revolve around religious teachings, social welfare projects, and political activism. There have been a lot of speculations that it is a terror movement that supports violence, but the organization has frequently denied the allegations. The Brotherhood was formed in 1928 by a cleric named Hasan al-Banna (TeachMideast). Its main objective was to promote Islamic religious laws, morals, and values. It also aimed to defy western beliefs and the rule of Britain in Egypt. Al-Banna believed that the Islamic religion should be dominant and impose its power and laws on all countries (Willi 30). Therefore, the movement intended to object to any secular inclinations in the Islamic regions and replace them with a pure Islam culture. During its formation, it received much support from the lower-middle class, who differed from the British government’s social stratifications. By 1938, it had gained over 500,000 followers and growing prominence in the surrounding nations (TeachMideast). This marked the beginning of its expansive network, which has increased its dominance in the world today.
The influence of the Brotherhood was witnessed when it rallied a lot of support for the 1936 Arab Revolt in Palestine, which targeted to overthrow the British administration. Nonetheless, in 1948, the Egyptian government banned the organization, and its assets were frozen following differences in ideologies. Two months later, unknown assailants assassinated Al-Banna, and Ḥasan al-Huḍaybī was elected as the new leader (Willi 8). In 1952, the Brotherhood joined the Free Officers’ coup to overthrow the British administration, and Gamel Abdel Nasser became president (Willi 8). However, his ideologies contradicted those of the Brotherhood, causing a rift between his government and the organization. The Brotherhood pushed for the implementation of the Sharia law while Nasser had a socialist vision. Consequently, in 1954, the organization tried to assassinate Nasser, and its operations were banned once again (TeachMideast). With the ban and new leadership, the Brotherhood became more radicalized in its underground activities. The Brotherhood’s injunction was lifted in the 1970s following the election of Anwar Sadat (Willi 63). It then abandoned its violent ideal and engaged in providing social services to increase support from the public.
Following the Arab Spring protests in 2011, the Brotherhood’s candidate, Mohammed Morsi, became president. As a result, Hosni Mubarak, the then president, was overthrown from power. Morsi’s restrictive constitution incited many protests, and he was later ousted by a military coup in 2013 (TeachMideast). Many of the Brotherhood’s members were then jailed or exiled. Morsi and other Brotherhood leaders were arrested and prosecuted; he died in jail in 2019 (“Terrorism”). Since the coup, the Egyptian government under Abdul Fattah al-Sisi has outlawed the organization as a terror movement. Other nations, such as the United Arabs Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and the United States, have also classified the movement as a terror group (Laub). The Islamic Brotherhood has branches in more than 70 countries and regions, including Egypt, Jordan, Gaza, Tunisia, and Syria. It is also active in the United States, United Kingdom, and France, among other European countries (Wagemakers 5). Research indicates that it enjoys massive support from Turkey and Qatar, where some members have found a haven (Laub). Currently, its influence has dwindled, stifling its political and social projects.
The Japanese Red Army (JRA) is a renowned terror organization around the globe. It is was formed by a group of extreme anarchists from Japan who engaged in severe crimes, such as hijackings and bomb attacks. JRA was founded in 1971 by Fusako Shigenobu (National Police Agency 11). The organization was formed after its followers split from the Japanese Communist League and merged with the Keihin Anti- Security Joint Struggle group. JRA’s primary objectives were to oust the Japanese administration to destroy its monarchy and start a global communist revolt. The members were ardent supporters of the Marxism-Leninist ideology (National Police Agency 11). JRA worked closely with the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), a popular terror group.
The JRA has been linked to several attacks across different parts of the world. In this case, the movement’s most famous attack was killing 26 people at the Lod airport in Israel. The shootings also wounded over 80 people, making one of the pronounced terror attacks of the group (Chia-Jui 388). In addition, JRA has also been linked with multiple bombings, including the 1986 car bombings near the Canadian consulate in Djakarta and the 1987 attacks on the British and American consulates in Rome. They also bombed a United Service Organization’s club in Italy, murdering five people (Martin and Prager 445). Likewise, the crusader group was renowned for its notoriety in hostage-taking to demand the liberation of its followers from prison. For example, in 1974, they held several hostages in a French Embassy at the Hague, and in 1975, they took control over the American embassy in Kuala Lumpur (Bacon 91). Thus, the JRA was involved in severe crimes that caused a lot of harm to many people.
JRA’s impact began diminishing in the 1990s following the near-collapse of the Soviet Union, which debilitated the group’s resolve for global communism. Additionally, there was a surge in the arrest of its followers and leaders, such as Kozo Okamoto and Yu Kikumura, among others. In 2000, Shigenobu was detained, and she dissolved the JRA in 2001 (National Police Agency 11). Since then, there have been no records of whether the group remains active or if the existing members have formed a new movement.
Key Leadership, Targeting, Weapon Choices, Financial Support and Recruiting Activities
The Brotherhood supports a hierarchical organizational structure with different leaders at distinct levels. At the epicenter of the group’s organization is the shūrā council, the decision-making body (Teney171). The guidance bureau is the topmost senior body which comprises sixteen members chosen from the shūrā council (Upal and Cusack 78). The bureau formulates the organization’s policies and directives and elects the organizational leaders who receive allegiance from the members. The chosen leader occupies the supreme guide title and is the head of the movement. Below the guidance bureau are several committees and departments tasked with unique responsibilities (Trends Research and Advisory 311). For example, the Spread of Dawah is a department whose role is to disseminate material about the Brotherhood to its followers and the public. A leader appointed by the bureau heads each department or committee. The Brotherhood movement has mainly targeted western influences in the Islamic countries (Laub). This may explain why it has formed several networks in many Islamic States.
The Brotherhood receives massive financial support through its members’ monthly contributions. It also relies on fundraising and financial backup from its political allies. Likewise, research indicates that the movement has invested in many ventures worldwide, resulting in immense profits (Al-Habsi). For example, it established the halal trade in western nations, encompassing vast food, banking, and medical equipment businesses. In this case, by 2025, the global market of halal food and drinks is estimated to be $739.59 billion (Al-Habsi). Additionally, the organization has other associations that generate profit, such as the Islamic Relief Foundation. Their weapons of choice may include rifles and grenades used by many Islamic terror cells like the al-Qaeda and Islamic State, whose roots originate from the Brotherhood (Teney, 171). Its recruitment strategies mainly target the youth through its doctrines which propagate its ideologies to the public. It also gains new members through its social services to the public (Mellor 15). The Brotherhood members also recruit their friends and families who believe in the movement’s principles.
Alternatively, the JRA had a centralized organizational structure where the leader directed all activities through the help of a political committee. Although JRA’s target was the Japanese government, it engaged in numerous attacks in overseas regions that were not connected to Japan, such as the attack at Telaviv and foreign embassies; this made the movement’s target unclear. Regarding weapon choices, their attacks mostly involved the use of firearms, rockets, and bombs (National Police Agency 11). The use of bombings helped maintain the group’s numbers because they experienced a lot of challenges getting recruits. There are no records to indicate whether the group relied on external aid for its operations. Its recruitment activities were greatly limited because it was based in the Middle East, away from Japan.
Political, Social and Economic Enablers of Each Group’s Operations
Different political, social, and economic aspects considerably contributed to the Brotherhood’s operations. The Brotherhood has continually benefited from government support; despite multiple bans, some governments have allowed and supported its operations. For example, Sadat lifted its prohibition in the 1970s, permitting it to continue its social projects. Additionally, following Morsi’s presidency in 2012, the group gained much political support because he was their candidate (TeachMideast). Brotherhood has been associated with links to governments in other nations, such as Syria and Palestine (Laub). These political ties have helped its network to continue growing in other countries. Regarding the social aspects, due to its social charities to the public, such as the construction of hospitals, schools, and mosques, the Brotherhood enjoys a considerable following (Mellor 15). Its grassroots activism during its initial stages influenced significant membership among the low-middle class. Therefore, it has a huge following from its supporters and the public. The economic enablers of the Brotherhood include membership fees and business ventures.
The Brotherhood’s peer competitor is the Hamas (The Islamic Resistance Movement). Hamas was formed in 1987 by some followers who split from the Brotherhood. It applies a more militant approach and is present in Israel, Syria, and Palestine; it does not have any ties to the Brotherhood (Upal and Cusack 83). The critical successes of the Brotherhood are helping to eliminate the British government in Egypt and winning a presidential election in 2012. It has also established a broad network around the world and has many followers. Its shortcomings are the inability to remain in power after the ousting of Morsi and the detainment of its leaders and members.
There is no evidence showing whether JRA received any support from any government. However, during its formation, it enjoyed a lot of backing from the youths, particularly the university students. After relocating to the Middle East, it gained PFLP’s support and was able to plan numerous attacks (National Police Agency 11). No records indicate the economic aspects that fostered its operations. There is no proof of peer competitors; instead, JRA collaborated with other terror movements, such as the PFLP (O’Sullivan 25). It succeeded in multiple attacks like the USO club bombing in Italy in 1988, the attack in Tel Aviv in 1972, and hostage-taking in Hague and Kuala Lumpur in 1974 and 1975, respectively (National Police Agency 11). JRA’s primary failure is that it was unsuccessful in revolutionizing Japan into a communist society.
Comparative Assessment of the Groups’ Strengths
In terms of memberships, financial strength, and influence, the Muslim Brotherhood is more powerful and has gained more prominence worldwide compared to the JRA. The Brotherhood has over 500 000 members and is spread in more than 70 regions globally (TeachMideast). In contrast, JRA is estimated to have had around 40 members, which is considerably low for a terrorist group. Although it had its operations in the Middle East, it experienced difficulties recruiting new members in the region or other parts of the world. This shows that it only had sympathizers in the area, and its influence was due to its close association with other terror cells such as the PFLP (O’Sullivan 25). Similarly, due to its vast membership and political allies and investments, the Brotherhood has a solid financial capability compared to JRA. There are no records on the assets or external support for the JRA, which implies that it mainly depended on membership contributions from its extremely few followers. Therefore, it is evident that the Muslim Brotherhood has more capability than JRA.
Regarding the severity of the groups’ activities, the Brotherhood has had more impact than JRA. For example, they aligned with the Free Officers to overthrow the British dominion in Egypt in 1952 (TeachMideast). Additionally, in 2012, their candidate Morsi won the elections, and their Freedom and Justice Party (FJP) garnered many seats in the People’s Assembly (Willi 251). This proves the movement’s massive influence on the country’s governance. Similarly, through their social projects like building schools, hospitals, and mosques, the Brotherhood has gained popularity in the country, increasing its influence (Mellor 15). Conversely, although JRA may have been involved in many bombings and hostage-takings, they were yet to gain adequate prominence to control the Japanese government. Their activities were mostly used as a bargaining chip to release its convicted followers but did not have enough momentum to change the government policies. They also did not impact the public because they were based in the Middle East and did not engage in any social programs that could benefit the Japanese citizens.
The Muslim Brotherhood has shown a lot of resilience in comparison with the JRA. The Brotherhood’s operations have been banned multiple times, yet it continues to endure. In this case, it was outlawed in 1949, 1954, and in 2013 yet its operations remain active (TeachMideast). In addition, despite the death of Al-Banna, the Brotherhood has managed to establish an effective structure where leaders can succeed each other and carry out its operations. Regardless of the death or imprisonment of its leaders or members, it continues to recruit and operate. Nevertheless, the JRA was significantly weakened following the arrests of most of its members and its founder Shigenobu who disbanded the movement while in prison (National Police Agency 11). The Brotherhood has achieved more strategic success by expanding its operations to many countries and gaining political allies (Laub). Despite its operations in overseas nations, the JRA did not gain strategic success; instead, this only crippled its operations because it could not recruit new followers and expand its network. Generally, the Brotherhood has been more prominent and successful compared to the JRA.
A Summary for the Counterterrorism Professionals
Based on the research on the Brotherhood and JRA, it is clear that terrorism is a challenge to every country in the world. The counterterrorism professionals in the United Arab Emirates need to learn that terrorism spreads very quickly. Therefore, in case of any reports on terror activities, they should be acted upon promptly. In addition, many terror groups tend to expand their networks to other countries. This shows the possibility that there could be branches of terrorist movements operating in the country silently. Thus, these professionals need to know that the government alone cannot effectively fight against such groups. There is a need to involve the local communities, media, and the private sector in the fight against terror (United Nations DPI 98). Through interactions with different neighborhoods, counterterrorism officers can obtain information about unusual operations in the area.
Equally important, terrorist movements are very influential; they can topple governments and cause a country’s destruction. Hence, counterterrorism officials need to use more advanced technology to detect any terror activities in the country and prevent them from happening. The officials should also establish connections with governments from neighboring nations to exchange information and intelligence on terrorism (United Nations DPI 98). This may keep them updated on any impending attacks and assist them in strategizing to thwart them. The counterterrorism officers also need to collaborate with law enforcement professionals like the police officers and border patrols to keep them informed about any security breach.
Conclusion
Terror activities are a great menace to society due to their adverse effects. Terrorism results in considerable loss of lives and destroys a lot of property, plunging countries into economic crises. The Muslim Brotherhood and the JRA have been among the popular terror groups in the world. Although their operations have subsided, there is no proof that they are inactive. Both movements were created to spread particular ideologies. In this case, the Brotherhood was formed to promote Islamic values and morals, while the JRA was founded to spread communism globally. Various political, economic, and social factors have significantly contributed to the movements’ operations. Both groups have succeeded in some cases and also experienced multiple failures. Some of its members and leaders have died, while others have been convicted. Governments around the world should allocate more resources to combat terrorism.
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