Artificial Intelligence: Past, Present, and Future Research Paper

Introduction

Artificial intelligence has been the forefront of science and technology for decades. The term artificial intelligence is often misinterpreted as the recreation of human intelligence in machine form. However, it would be apposite to define it as an ability of an artificial system to gather, interpret, and apply data for the achievement of specific goals.¹ A distinct feature of artificial technology is the ability to execute given tasks without human oversight and improve performance, with algorithms allowing it to learn from its mistakes and input data.² Therefore, programs and techniques based on artificial intelligence are uniquely positioned to accomplish complex functions in a variety of fields.

Discussion

The idea of machines possessing and operating with human-like intelligence can be traced to the first half of the 20^th century. In 1942, Isaac Asimov published a short story about robots possessing artificial intelligence and outlined the fundamental laws of robotics.³ Many scientists were inspired by Asimov’s story, commencing work on intelligence techniques. In 1956, the Rockefeller Foundation founded a workshop on artificial intelligence hosted by Marvin Minsky and John McCarthy, who are considered the fathers of this branch of science. 1956 is considered the birth year of artificial intelligence and the year the term was coined. Early artificial intelligence projects included the 1964 natural language processing program ELIZA and the 1959 General Problem Solver program aimed at the solution of universal problems.⁴ The 21^st century produced more intricate artificial intelligence programs and techniques that are utilized in lethal autonomous weapon systems, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, as well as in medicine, logistics, education, and cyberspace.⁵ The latest leaps in artificial intelligence are embodied by quantum computing that allows for faster data gathering and interpretation.⁶ Quantum algorithms present a riveting field of research, particularly in intelligence collection and analysis.

Today, defense and intelligence agencies have unprecedented access to artificial intelligence programs and techniques. Although the artificial intelligence used or developed by the U.S. military and by the military-industrial complex is considered to be in its infancy, it can be highly beneficial.⁷ Artificial intelligence allows for faster data interpretation, translating into an increased speed of decision-making processes in the military and reaching more objective solutions by mitigating human error.⁸ Moreover, the use of artificial intelligence decreases human labor and costs.

Nevertheless, many experts argue that applying artificial intelligence, including techniques based on quantum computing, presents substantial security challenges. Specifically, the speed of artificial intelligence systems creates incentives for opponent states to resort to preemptive actions, leading to escalation of conflict.⁹ Moreover, there is an inherent risk of loss of human control over vital decisions if the system disregards data it marked to be inconsequential. For example, failure to specify certain conditions as dangerous can lead to the inability to plan a safe path in autonomous submersibles. Quantum computing, in particular, raises questions pertaining to security and efficiency, with a high potential for algorithm-related data. It should be noted that most resolutions utilized in artificial intelligence are based on heuristic algorithms that may not present suitable solutions.¹⁰ Thus, the supposed benefits of a more efficient decision-making process remain uncertain.

Quantum-based artificial intelligence and its use in the military, including intelligence gathering and interpretation, present an interesting field of research. The potential for mistakes in decisions and solutions proposed by artificial intelligence systems can lead to potentially devastating outcomes that can affect numerous people. Therefore, this paper aims to answer the following research question: how do quantum computing algorithms impact artificial intelligence in intelligence collection and interpretation? What is the potential for error and miscalculation in quantum algorithms?

Purpose Statement

Quantum technology can be applied in a variety of fields within the military. It can be defined as technology built with the use of quantum-mechanical properties, including quantum entanglement, superposition, and tunneling utilized in separate quantum systems.¹¹ Thus, quantum warfare is the use of quantum technologies and artificial intelligence in support of the national security, at strategic, tactical, and operational levels, through the employment of highly advanced and efficient gathering and analysis of intelligence. This paper addresses the use of artificial intelligence systems based on quantum technologies in the military, specifically in intelligence data interpretation. Furthermore, its impact on U.S. national security will be assessed, with the paper considering the effect of data interpretation miscalculations on the nation’s ability to defend itself.

The comparison of artificial intelligence systems based on different technologies, including quantum technology, will help elucidate how data is collected, excluded, and evaluated by different systems. Unlike other technology, quantum tech utilizes quantum bits that hold more information than binary digits, thus, processing any data set at an increased speed.¹² This will yield an understanding of how quantum-based artificial intelligence techniques operate and how they can benefit the U.S. intelligence agencies. Therefore, this analysis will help assess whether the investment in quantum technologies by the military, in particular, intelligence agencies, is justified.

Conclusion

Furthermore, assessment of the potential for errors and miscalculations of systems based on quantum technologies will allow evaluating their safety and efficiency. In discussing this question, both technological and ethical aspects of artificial intelligence implementation are to be considered. Such ethical principles as justified and overridable uses of artificial intelligence and human moral responsibility require exploration.¹³ The emphasis will be made on the possibility of miscalculations in implementing different algorithms. Nevertheless, the ethical issues arising from such errors should not be divorced from the conversation, as mistakes made by the military have the potential to impact people on the national level. Therefore, the study has two primary purposes:

1. To examine the efficiency of artificial intelligence systems based on quantum technologies compared with those not built on quantum technologies.
2. To consider the probability of errors in data collection and interpretation and their effect on U.S. national security.

Bibliography

Acampora, Giovanni. “Quantum machine intelligence.” Quantum Machine Intelligence 1, no. 1-2 (2019), 1–3. doi:10.1007/s42484-019-00006-5.

Haenlein, Michael, and Andreas Kaplan. “A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence: On the Past, Present, and Future of Artificial Intelligence.” California Management Review 61, no. 4 (2019), 5–14.

Hoadley, Daniel S., and Nathan J. Lucas. Artificial Intelligence and National Security. Congressional Research Service, 2018. Web.

Krelina, Michal. “Quantum technology for military applications.” EPJ Quantum Technology 8, no. 1 (2021), 24–77.

Morgan, Forrest E., Benjamin Boudreaux, Andrew J. Lohn, Mark Ashby, Christian Curriden, Kelly Klima, and Derek Grossman. Military Applications of Artificial Intelligence: Ethical Concerns in an Uncertain World. RAND Corporation, 2020. Web.

Taddeo, Mariarosaria, David McNeish, Alexander Blanchard, and Elizabeth Edgar. “Ethical Principles for Artificial Intelligence in National Defence.” Philosophy & Technology 34, no. 4 (2021), 1707-1729.

Footnotes

• 1 Michael Haenlein and Andreas Kaplan, “A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence: On the Past, Present, and Future of Artificial Intelligence,” California Management Review 61, no. 4 (2019): 1.
• 2 Daniel S. Hoadley and Nathan J. Lucas, Artificial Intelligence and National Security, (Congressional Research Service, 2018), Web.
• 3 Haenlein and Kaplan, “A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence,” 2.
• 4 Haenlein and Kaplan, “A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence,” 3.
• 5 Hoadley and Lucas, “Artificial Intelligence and National Security.”
• 6 Giovanni Acampora, “Quantum machine intelligence,” Quantum Machine Intelligence 1, no. 1-2 (2019): 1.
• 7 Hoadley and Lucas, “Artificial Intelligence and National Security.”
• 8 Forrest E. Morgan et al., Military Applications of Artificial Intelligence: Ethical Concerns in an Uncertain World, (RAND Corporation, 2020), Web.
• 9 Hoadley and Lucas, “Artificial Intelligence and National Security.”
• 10 Michal Krelina, “Quantum technology for military applications,” EPJ Quantum Technology 8, no. 1 (2021): 33.
• 11 Krelina, “Quantum technology for military applications,” 27.
• 12 Krelina, “Quantum technology for military applications,” 29.
• 13 Mariarosaria Taddeo et al., “Ethical Principles for Artificial Intelligence in National Defence,” Philosophy & Technology 34, no. 4 (2021): 1720.