Abstract
The World Health Organization (WHO) gives statistics implying that at the least ten percent of the global populace lives with a certain form of disability. A massive eighty percent of these individuals are in the developing nations, where development of various infrastructures is being encouraged in order to make the conditions their conducive for all citizens (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010).
Most existing and upcoming buildings and other structures to be used by people do not have the essential user-friendly aspects for the disabled. This is attributable to the social model of the physical condition of persons. In this model, the physical condition of the individual is viewed to be only a fraction of the predicament. It demonstrates that civilization is set up to fully cater for the requirements of the non-disabled. The handicapped suffer from an inadequately designed setting, transportation they are unable to use and communication arrangements they cannot understand (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). These obstacles of outlook and admittance bar the handicapped from obtaining good education and learning facilities, good jobs and from living a complete social life. Consequently, there have been proposals to alter usual housing practices so that new structures have these features.
This study looks at the difficulties that handicapped individuals face when entering buildings and subsequent use of facilities and other provisions in buildings like bathrooms, telephones positioned at a suitable elevation, soap dispensers located at appropriate heights among others (Hahn, 1988, p. 7).
It then looks at various design options catering for this special group of persons and then chooses the most feasible solution for carrying this out. Persons with disabilities are not any different from non-disabled people and thus they have a right to be treated in the same respect as any other person.
Introduction
Accessibility is a term referring to the extent to which a building or a part of it is reachable by as many people of all forms as possible, be they disabled, handicapped or sound in all aspects (Hull, 1979, p. 4). The concentration is mainly on the handicapped that use equipment and devices like wheelchairs and crutches. They need to go wherever they wish to, just like the rest of humanity, through the assistance of this equipment.
The aspect of accessibility is mainly linked to the international design standards and it is all about making man-made structures like buildings and parking lots reachable to all people, whether handicapped or not. This is what is commonly referred to as direct access. Indirect access on the other hand involves making a provision for the entity under consideration to support the use of the handicapper’s assistive technology to gain access.
The disability rights movement roots for not only equivalent physical access but also access to the same facilities and other services in building(s) for the handicapped as it is for the physically sound individuals (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). Examples of these facilities include bathrooms with sufficiently wide doors and enough turning space inside, alarm codes at the right height, reachable ways into and through the place of abode, supported walls in cloakrooms for later placement of grab bars, tickets booths at the suitable height for everyone at cinema halls among other provisions.
A wheelchair occupant should be able to reach whatever he or she wishes by hand with a minimal shift of their leg(s) and body trunk. Cooking areas and sinks should be planned to offer provision for legs of the chair user to be accommodated at the underside.
Definition
Universal design whereby buildings and other structures meet the requirements of all people, their physical status notwithstanding should be the aim of every architect. Physically impaired persons and especially those on wheelchairs find it difficult to gain access into many public and residential buildings due to lack of surfaces where the wheelchairs can move smoothly. They also find it difficult to use amenities in these buildings like bathrooms and kitchens due to their configuration to use by only physically sound people.
History
Accessibility design is a universal idea tracing its roots with the Disability Movement and presumes that the main idea of non-discrimination to all humans is ordinary. The International Building Code, commonly referred to as (IBC) is a reproduction building standard built up by the International Code Council, ICC.
The accessibility interest group traces its origin with the public rights movement and the Public Rights Act of 1964. The origin lies in the framework and putting into practice of regulations relating to accessibility. The foremost nationally accepted design standard in America was released in 1961 and was based on study conducted by the University of Illinois (Lifchez, 1987, p. 14). It offered vital reference for private and state entities in matters relating to building design, taking the plight of the handicapped into consideration. As from 1968, the federal government has always addressed issues relating to accessibility.
The first serious endeavor to tackle construction design as a matter for handicapped persons took place at a 1958 convention backed by among others the President’s order on service of the disabled. These codes were brought up by Timothy Nugent at the University of Illinois with support from the state, legal fraternity, health, commerce and specialized relations. It bore requirements to get rid of any obstacles that bar individuals from using buildings and other amenities (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). It also contained standards for constructing facilities such as elevators, bathroom stalls and parking for the handicapped. It was on record as the first technologically constituted design principle on accessibility globally.
Many building owners, however, were not quick to enforce these standards at the time as they were unaware of the societal gains of having them in place. This led to local authorities moving in to ensure the requirements were adhered to.
An unofficial faction of federal representatives had come up with an advisory steer for federal entities on enabling civic buildings to be reachable during the late 1950s but it was not until 1965 when an alteration of the Rehabilitation Act led to the federal government recognizing this as a matter requiring attention.
In 1968, the National Commission on Architectural Barriers was launched and gave out a description titled Design for all Americans and it had details regarding the ignorance of most private and public entities about the existence of obstacles and their elimination. In an assessment of about three thousand architects, only seven hundred responded and a paltry 35% of them had an idea what ANSI A117.1 of the year 1961 was (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010).
There was none of the four main construction standards that made any allusion to architectural blockades or their elimination. The construction sector producers and suppliers were not in the know about the being there of universal codes. This led civic administrators making conclusions that there was not enough public appreciation to produce public plans addressing reach of buildings and other related structures.
The report also made references to several inadequacies in the ANSI standard that played down on its functionality to planners. The standard failed to clearly describe the scale of its practicality, which is the amenity types, aspects of a building and the number of those elements. It thus proved difficult to put into operation as its language was not clear and it had a small number of portrayals to assist designers in interpretation of the information.
Later in 1971, the ANSI standard of 1961 was reasserted minus any revision by the American National Standard Institute and its use went on for another decade as a support document for the crafting of federal regulations (Lifchez, 1987, p. 15). Designers remained in uncertainty due to various standard-setting entities and clashing obligations.
The Congress then drew and passed a new act in 1968, the Architectural Barriers Act. One of the push factors for this was the opinion that the use of civic money on relooking at these standards was not a worthwhile undertaking minus the doing away of architectural obstacles. The proponents lay emphasis on the thought that these obstacles were in place due to short-sightedness and their being expunged would come about with enlightenment of the designers and planners and the public in general. This holdup stayed in place for up to two decades and it hampered access to both private and public buildings and other facilities.
The Barriers Act authorized that buildings and related amenities planned and put up using federal finance would have to take care of accessibility to all. Three federal agencies that would set these standards were set up (Lifchez, 1987, p. 16). The Act also had to undergo two key adjustments in 1970 and 1976 before it could start having ay considerable achievement on the accessibility of public buildings and amenities.
Transformation in society mind-set has then followed slowly and largely as a result of enlightenment endeavors that have accompanied new legislations. This is in addition to the federal regulations, health developments and also advances in assistive technology. The most important issue was the change of characterization of disability from therapeutic and economic point of view which gives disabilities approach from the point of view of practical and occupational restrictions, to an outlook that lay focus on the hindering aspects of the surroundings that restrict the feasible contacts of disabled individuals.
In this budge, the handicapped have come out as a marginal group that is not subjugated by their disabilities but by conditions that can be altered for the better by way of legislation (Hull, 1979, p. 6). A main element of subjugation of a marginal group is the notion of biological inadequacy by the majority. Other marginal groupings have been able to refute this theory, while on the other hand, the noticeable bodily differences of the handicapped stirs up responses of the effect that this group of people is more of subordinate. In order for public plans to be achieved, the mindsets that result in the discrimination of the handicapped must be dealt with in equal measures with practical alterations in the physical set up.
The handicapped rights movement traces its origin in the public rights movement of the 1960s. The 1964 Civil Rights Act had the objective of mainly doing away with bias based on race and it opened up ground for a number of other marginalized groups to demand for their rights. This led to the crafting of the Rehabilitation Act in 1973 (Hull, 1979, p. 7).
The strongpoint of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act was the fact that it majorly echoed title seven of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It was a key issue in the transfer of disability concerns from societal and medical services to a civil rights ground. Much emphasis was however laid on the foundation for change with issues of execution being at the back seat. This is what really led to the delay in issuing of regulations for the implementation of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.
Three vital ideas came up in the 1970s, program ease of access, normalizing and independent living (Hahn, 1988, p. 10). None of these straightforwardly dealt with the practical aspects of accessibility, but each had a mention of consideration of the handicapped by firms or entities that own buildings.
Disabled children got a sigh of relief in the year 1975 when the All Handicapped Children Act got passed. The Congress passed it and it entitled all disabled children in public learning institutions to free education. It aimed at eliminating discrimination of any form since it encouraged that the handicapped children be learning with the non-disabled at all time’s possible (Hahn, 1988, p. 10). Public schools had to do away with any obstacles barring handicapped children from accessing all available facilities.
As the state-run disability guiding principle was being redefined, the handicapped in local society were in the process of forming a socio-political pressure group. The movement was established in Berkeley, California, and this where the first hub for independent living was launched. The handicapped championed for their rights and this was replicated throughout the nation among the disabled who had at one time or another come face to face with discrimination. Independent living centers came up in their numbers in line with state and local authority offices on disability (Lifchez, 1987, p. 16).
State and local authorities made more progress than the federal government. Many states implemented the ANSI code and required meeting the terms and conditions for facilities that they were financing. At the end of 1966, 30 states had this in place and at the end of 1973, it was only one state that had not done so and his was Kentucky.
The 1980s was a chilling phase for the handicapped due to the opinion that it was okay to do away with government. This threatened the rights that the handicapped had won over the years. The disability movement proved to be adequately built to champion the right s of the disabled since it stood the period unlike other movements. In fact, it stood firm against deregulation of Section 504 and the Architectural Barriers Act.
Minimum guiding principles for accessible plan were published in 1981 by the Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board, ATBCB (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). New appointees to this board by the then President Reagan opposed the guidelines, but the guidelines had to be reissued in the following year due to irresistible public demand.
In 1988, the Civil Rights Restoration Act was drafted to fix the adjustments that had been done to the framework of public rights enactment by the governmental and legal rulings in the early 1980s. The act was fuelled by a gender-discrimination case at the time. It was the first time that the handicapped society was wholly acknowledged as an equal player in the lawmaking and the championing course for public rights.
The Civil Rights Act that had been enacted in 1968 was amended into the Fair Housing Amendments Act. This covered both the handicapped and family set ups with children. Accessible shelter was enlarged to multifamily and it meant that a handicapped person could find accessible accommodation in the open market (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010).
The president’s appointees to the National Council on Disability drafted the Americans with Disabilities Act and presented it to the Congress. The disability movement and all wings of the political system at the time spoke with one voice that a relook was needed into the free convention of equivalent chance and rights.
Within a period of two years, this legislation was passed by Congress and signed by the then President Bush. The Congressmen understood their responsibility to deliver civil right to all American citizens. The gains of the act are cross-cutting and for eternity. Persons not benefitting directly from the provision know someone else who is benefitting. Strategists foresaw vital repercussions for the future from the act in terms of running expenditures of prospectively dependent citizens. Demographic experts project an increase in the life expectancy.
Catering for the requirements of the handicapped by way of unrestricted accessibility enables saving a lot of funds in institutional care. More than two thirds of the handicapped are unemployed and the reason is the outlook towards them by the physically upright and physical obstacles which bar their access to existing opportunities.
The American with Disabilities Act is remarkable both nationally and on the world stage. The United States guarantees unbiased rights within a legitimate convention. The act is an edge above other public rights groupings since a person can become a member at any time of their life.
In March 1991, the Fair Housing Act was enacted and its requirements were aimed at privately owned residences and publicly assisted buildings, stressing on the need to incorporate elements of accessible design.
Also in the same year, the American with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines, ADAAG, was crafted. It held guidelines for public housing and business amenities both in private and public areas. It was revised later that year to cater for transport facilities.
In 1998, the Americans with Disabilities Act was altered to offer guiding principles in the design of both state and local authority and facilities meant for child use. Later in 2002, the Help America Vote Act was enacted to offer guidelines for voting facilities that offer unbiased reach for all to the voting areas (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). The Americans with Disabilities Act and the ABA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities were brought up to date and printed in the Federal Register in 2004.
Other research
Wheel chair lift
This mechanical equipment is used to raise a wheel chair together with its occupant in a bid to go over a step or any other vertical obstacle. A hydraulic wheelchair lift is convenient and can be used for both homes and public buildings. The major principle here is the use of hydraulics for even movement and hydraulic fluid the lift to smoothly adjust to in the case of any impulsive changes in velocity or surface (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). These types of lifts are preferred as they do not concern their operators/owners with electricity requirements.
The most convenient and practical one should have a pivotal frame such that it is able to swing from within and without the building or apartment in which it is used, a slip frame that is movable telescopically vis-à-vis to the swing and a flat surface to accommodate the wheelchair held at the bottom end of the slip frame.
The wheelchair platform is pivoted at a flat location in a vertical folded position. This arrangement needs to be coplanar with the sway frame such that the whole assemblage can be kept in the building or elsewhere when not in use.
A hydraulic butt with a power rap in one direction and a return stroke in the reverse course offers the provision for lifting up leads inclined on converse sides of the sway frame (Hahn, 1988, p. 15). This is operationally linked to both the side frame and the wheelchair platform.
The power stroke of the butt makes the slip and the held platform to be hoisted to the floor level of the building or apartment for transfer of the wheelchair with its occupant. This stroke also results in the pivotal transfer of the wheelchair platform back to its folded up position after the load of the wheelchair has been taken out of the platform.
There is a provision made to ensure that the mechanical energy resulting from the displacement of the wheelchair platform back to its rest place is preserved. This energy is then later utilized in the unfolding movements of the sway frame and the platform (Hahn, 1988, p. 17). The pivoted displacement of the platform and the descending slip is enhanced by gravity and the velocity is regulated by discharge of hydraulic pressure which is accumulated at the end of the butt.
Most of the previously designed lifts proved to be burdensome and complicated in their construction, in addition to being expensive and time consuming in their mounting and routine repairs. It is required that the makeup should be simple but effective, thus allowing for timely and less costly maintenance.
As long as this solution is viable, it may not be accessible to all. The handicapped and especially those in the developing world are not able to afford this equipment. It might also prove to be unreliable due to malfunctioning. Therefore, it would be better to establish a permanent provision like ramps to aid the disabled enter buildings more easily instead of a movable device which can malfunction at any time.
Innovative new escalator
This type of escalator is meant to fully deal with accessibility issues for the disabled on wheelchair, the aged and people with huge loads (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). On the normal escalators, this group of persons finds it difficult to both go up or down and waste lots of time in the process.
The escalator is an improvement on the existing ones. For instance, when a person on wheelchair wants to use, then they press a push button that causes the rungs of the escalator to move as one to shape a platform that holds the wheelchair.
After the wheelchair and its occupant are well placed the escalator moves as normal until the user reaches the other end. After the user has left the escalator, the platform reverts back to its initial number of independent rungs.
This innovation also incorporates a remote control system to make it easier to use since access to a button may prove difficult for almost all disability cases. Light and audio signals are also present to cater for the needs of the visually impaired and the deaf.
Any occurrences of power blackouts especially when users are midway are taken care of by a back-up battery system.
This innovation has done well in saving on energy costs in a much better way than the present day escalators. It is projected to save 30% of energy. Its tread girdle that moves about the upper and lower planes of the incline is the same for upward and downward movement. This means it functions in a closed circuit.
Elevators
The disabled encounter quite a number of problems when using elevators and these problems include; insufficient room in the elevator cab, unreachable buttons, narrow entrances and inadequate opening duration intervals.
Proper planning and design is required in order to solve these hitches. Accessible elevators ought to reach all the floors of any building that is usually accessed by the society (Hahn, 1988, p. 18). These provisions also need to be wide enough; standard dimensions require a least measure of 1 meter by 1.3 meters with the door opening being at least an eighth of a meter.
The elevator cab needs a handrail on all sides apart from the door and these should be mounted at a distance of between 0.8 and 0.85 meters from the floor. For accessible reach, the control panel needs to be placed between 0.9 and 1.2 meters form the floor. All push buttons on the control panel need to be illuminated always, with a least diameter of 20 millimeters. For the elevator hall indicator to be visible to all, it needs to be placed at about 1.8 meters from the floor level. Handicapped users experience problems with the opening intervals and thus the intervals need to be fixed to suit their needs. A least opening period of five seconds needs to be provided, with re-opening activators (Hahn, 1988, p. 19). A combination of audiovisual signals is needed for the deaf and visually impaired. Elevator floors and the floor surface immediately after the elevator needs to be well treaded to keep skidding at bay.
All these recommendations are best suited for high-rise buildings with elevators. However, most buildings in the developing world going up to fifth floors do not have provisions for elevators and they thus need alternative accessibility provisions like ramps that are discussed below.
Recommended solutions
Wheelchair ramp
This refers to an inclined level surface that can be set up in addition to or in the place of a set of steps. This provision allows wheelchair users as well as people pushing or pulling wheeled equipment to enter and exit buildings more conveniently, and these ramps can be permanent, semi-permanent or transferable (Lifchez, 1987, p. 17). Putting wheelchair ramps in place offers access to various buildings and other amenities within the building to wheelchair users and thus offers these persons the independence they deserve.
Permanent ramps are fixed or cemented in place as their name suggests, while the semi-permanent ones lie on the floor and transferable ramps have the provision of folding for convenient movement form one place to another.
Permanent ramps are mostly made from masonry work, but can also be made from steel and wood in other places. Masonry ramps offer excellent durability and are followed by steel ramps (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). However, steel ramps are more costly. Wooden ramps do not offer a good durability and are not recommended for very busy places like public buildings. They are better suited for home use. Semi-permanent ramps are also mainly steel and wooden while their portable counterparts are mainly aluminum.
Quite a number of modern day ramps are foldable into convenient sizes and are easy to carry for the case of buildings that have not been modified to cater for wheelchair users. They most fit for those who are mobile and with personal vehicles. An example is the modular ramp which is all aluminum and can be used for both homes and public buildings. Its elements are standard and allow for assembly in a matter of a few minutes. It also has grab rails and can be easily transferred to a different area.
The single fold ramp is handy in its set up process and in handling. It folds up at the central point and has a handle for easy carrying. Its construction also ensures that it is light. It opens to an area 30 inches wide and thus is able to accommodate all wheelchairs (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010).
The multifold ramp is also exceptional and folds to be carried like a briefcase. Its open space is also 30 inches wide and the whole set up is light in weight. It has a weight capacity of 600 pounds per square foot with a surface offering sufficient traction for the wheelchair and its occupant.
These features need to be well designed so that they are safe and convenient to use. Standards have been set to ensure this. For instance, the Americans with Disabilities Act advocate a 3:12 slope gradient for unoccupied wheelchairs which is an angle of fourteen degrees (Lifchez, 1987, p. 17). The UK standards state that a slope gradient of 1:6 is suitable for temporary ramps in the case of assisted wheelchairs. Ramp adjustments need to be in line with the set standards on wheelchair regulations.
Accessible design of the interiors
Wheelchair users need comfort and functionality of the wheelchair accessible public buildings and homes, just like the rest of humanity. The aim of this is to ensure that persons on wheelchair are able to do whatever they feel like doing with minimal or no aid from others. They also need provision for space for themselves and safety. This architectural design is not actually meant to only work for wheelchair users, but also for children, the visually impaired and the elderly (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). This guarantees that the home will be there to be used by all from different walks.
Accessible passage with adequate turning room should be offered in all common areas. In multi-storey buildings, at least two lifts serving the desired specification are needed (Hull, 1979, p. 21). These lifts need to connect passage areas at every echelon.
Enough space is required virtually everywhere to permit a wheelchair to turn 1800 through all doorways and around corners.
One of the initial areas to be looked at usually is the entryways and corridors. These ones need to be wide enough, a least width of 32-inches for a wheelchair, easily approachable and should not be having any apparent holdups like rungs and precipitous doorsills. The corridors also require grab bars at the right height such that the user(s) reaches them comfortably.
Accessible bathrooms for all begin with sufficiently wide doorways and an enough turn radius. A double bedroom requires a possibility for a straight link between it and a bathroom (Lifchez, 1987, p. 18). Restrooms must then be free of any barriers with mirrors mounted at the right height for ease of use, usually not more than 34-inches from the flooring.
The restrooms also need to provide the user with the alternative of either an accessible shower bath or a bath, so that they are able to use whichever they please. Grab bars are a necessity in the bath tub and the shower area. A water closet having side, sloping and anterior transfer spaces with an accessible washbasin is also needed.
The design of kitchens should allow accessibility for the handicapped in wheelchairs and those with other impairments. The standard height for counters and sinks should be at most 34-inches from the ground (Lifchez, 1987, p. 18).
Extra legroom is required under the counters, tables and sinks. The arrangement and organization between various areas should be done to well to permit ease of movement and turning.
Mounting and installation of burning appliances should take the handicapped into consideration. Knobs and other regulatory provision need to be on the front instead of being behind the burners so that the operator does not get burned or scalded whenever using them.
There are other very important considerations such as switches and telephone positions which need to be at accessible heights to all users (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010).
Homes whose initial design did not take the above into consideration need to be modified adequately so that the conditions are met. Most ranch style homes have the main flooring elevated a bit higher than the earth level with a generally level plan allowing for space beneath for electrical and plumbing works. Adjustments on such houses are considerably undemanding since all that the outside entry requires is a gently sloping ramp that can be placed over the existing staircase. It can be permanent, semi-permanent or portable, as may be found appropriate.
Split level houses are usually planned with various interior staircases and half-floor corridors. There is also an entry section at the floor plane and a flight of steps in the entrance. The task of transforming such homes may be a bit demanding since room is unavailable for setting up wheelchair ramps which are long sloping (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). This calls for wheelchair lifts at the veranda next to the stairwell. Alternatively, stair lifts can be installed in the stairwells.
Multi-storey homes are appropriately modified through setting up of a residential elevator and this is less costly as compared to commercial ones. Provision of ramps and accessible interiors is the most effective solution for the handicapped since this allows them virtually in any building. Solutions such as wheelchair lifts, escalators and elevators work well but are unavailable in some areas like homes and buildings going up to four floors.
Conclusion
The design of buildings needs to not only to take into account the needs of all those who are physically sound, but also the impaired persons. Home designs should not only consider the initial dwellers, there should be a provision for future adjustments and modifications to fit into the requirements of any special needs like for those of the elderly or the disabled (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010). This is what is commonly referred to as adaptability.
For instance, provision for a future home elevator requires that closet spaces should be set up in every storey, placed perpendicularly with similar measurements and position. At the appropriate time, the closet storey and ceilings are taken out and elevator equipment set up in the resulting allowance.
The producers of wheelchair equipment like ramps and lifts have to consult the wheelchair producers so that whatever products that they come up with end up complimenting each other. For instance, there is no need of producing a ramp whose width cannot accommodate a given wheelchair (National Institute of Building Sciences, USA, 2010).
Regimes in various nations need to be very strict in the implementation of set accessibility standards, especially for public and commercial buildings. Old buildings without these standards need to be modified appropriately while upcoming ones need to be accessible to all.
For the general public and those who are fortunate enough to be physically sound, it should be a shameful act to be biased against the handicapped in any matters. These are fellow men and women and they are entitled to equal employment, education, transport and other matters that every person requires to live a free and full life.
Equal access ensures that a worthwhile life is provided for the handicapped and thus they get to advance themselves, their families and other people they interact with in their day-to-day endeavors (Hahn, 1988, p. 7).
Reference List
Hahn, H. (1988). “The Politics of Physical Differences: Disability and Discrimination.” Journal of Social Issues, No. 1. 7-19.
Hull, K. (1979). The Rights of Physically Handicapped People. New York: Avon Books. 4-28.
Lifchez, R. (1987). Rethinking Architecture: Design Students and Physically Disabled People. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. 14 – 18.
National Institute of Building Sciences, (2010). An Authoritative Source of Innovative Solutions for the Built Environment. 1090 Vermont Avenue, NW, Suite 700 | Washington, DC 20005-4950. Web.