The second half of the 19th century saw a dramatic transformation take place in the United Kingdom. From a traditional society dominated by a narrow elite, Great Britain moved towards becoming a recognizably modern mass democracy. Reforms expanded the electoral franchise to include much of the lower middle and working classes. Other changes in civil service, education, and labor legislation made British society more meritocratic and egalitarian. This transition was all the more striking because it occurred with the active participation of the ruling elite (Frankforter and Spellman, p. 602). Two men, in particular, were instrumental in the reforms: William Gladstone, the leader of the Liberal Party, and his Conservative rival Benjamin Disraeli. Despite the limitations that underlay those reforms, they had a lasting impact on the modern British state.
On the eve of the reforms in 1868, the United Kingdom was a parliamentary monarchy with limited suffrage. While real power had mostly passed from Queen Victoria to the House of Commons, most people had no say in government, and their interests were underrepresented (Frankforter and Spellman, p. 601). Only 1.4 million out of a population of 35 million had the vote due to steep property requirements. While the Great Reform Act of 1832 took steps towards expanding the franchise, it did not fundamentally transform the system (Steinbach, p. 53). However, many Liberals and Conservatives came to see this situation as unsustainable. The process of industrialization, which created a growing and increasingly disaffected working class, made reform appear urgent.
As they alternated in power, both parties became involved in the reforms that transformed Britain. Although Gladstone began pushing for electoral reform in 1866, this initiative led to the Liberal government’s fall due to internal divisions (Steinbach, p. 51). Having assumed power, the Conservatives undercut the Liberals by expanding the franchise to 2.5 million voters. The new electorate helped Gladstone win the 1868 election, but in the longer run, the reform let Conservatives secure a broader support base (Frankforter and Spellman, p. 601). The secret ballot was introduced in 1872, while further suffrage expansion in 1884 enfranchised a majority of adult men. While in power, the Liberals created a professional, merit-based military and civil service, established universal elementary education, and removed religious tests in universities. When Disraeli returned to office in 1874, he introduced social reforms improving working conditions, housing, and public health. Liberal and Conservative governments expanded trade union rights, though they forbade strikes. This policy activity shows how expanding suffrage incentivized both parties to carry out useful reforms.
The reforms carried out by Gladstone and Disraeli reflected their views, but the same ideals limited their extent. By the end of the period, suffrage was far from universal; in particular, neither party considered extending it to women (Steinbach, p. 52). Nevertheless, electoral reforms created a precedent that would be instrumental in further expansion of the suffrage. Like many Liberals, Gladstone believed in individual independence and was wary of expanding the role of the state, limiting his ability to address social issues (Frankforter and Spellman, p. 601). Disraeli and the Conservatives had fewer reservations about social reforms due to their paternalistic vision of society and anxiety over socialist influence over disaffected workers. The social reforms of this time were modest in scope and impact. Still, they also created useful precedents that would guide later interventions to increase equality and expand social safety nets. Though limited, the reforms had set the United Kingdom on the path to mass democracy and the welfare state.
With the end of Gladstone’s last premiership in 1894, the period of reforms came to a close. While universal suffrage has not been attained, and the government’s intervention in economic and social affairs remained small, a significant transformation has taken place. Parliamentary and electoral politics now had to accommodate the interests of a much broader section of the public. Furthermore, the first steps were taken to expand the government’s area of concern with regard to public health and workers’ rights. Ultimately, the late 19th-century reforms and the precedents they created helped ensure a peaceful transition to the modern British political model.
Works Cited
- Frankforter, A. Daniel, and William M. Spellman. The West: A Narrative History, Volume 2: Since 1400. Pearson Higher Ed, 2012.
- Steinbach, Susie L. Understanding the Victorians: Politics, Culture and Society in Nineteenth-Century Britain. Routledge, 2016.