Abstract
The problem of alcohol and drug dependency has increased over the years, fueled by factors such as easy accessibility of drugs, high cost of living, poverty, financial instability, and laxity on the part of authorities to curb the vice. As a result, psychologists have been faced with an influx of drug addicts who are struggling to come out of the physical, psychological, and social effects brought about by their alcohol and drugs dependency. Behaviorism is one of the theories that psychologists continue to employ to help the victims out of the mess. Behaviorism confines itself to the objective study of quantifiable and observable characteristics of behaviors. It seeks to explain the behavior of humans and animals entirely in terms of measurable and observable responses to environmental stimuli. As such, behaviorism theory has been used widely to influence the therapeutic system of behavior modification
This paper has relied widely on the two types of conditioning – classical and operant – to explain how behaviorism theory can be used to help individuals out of their drug related problems. Classical conditioning, developed by Pavlov, occurs when a behavior turns to a reflex response of a stimulus. Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, argues that behavior can be reinforced through a system of rewards and punishments. This paper has extensively elaborated how the two techniques can be used by psychologists to curtail the vice of drug dependency.
In the application of behaviorism theory, psychologists must be able to instill in the addicts the concept that any unwanted behavior can effectively be changed through a vivid demonstration of a desired behavior. The theory is important in helping the drug addicts gain stimulus control, urge control, and social control over their predicaments. However, the theory is presented with major difficulties in that drug dependency is an individual decision that requires more individual good will rather than external help. Psychologists are also hard pressed to know the behavior reinforcements agents that causes particular individuals to be drug addicts. This paper also discusses spiritual treatment of alcohol and drug dependence. In spiritual treatment, addicts are brought in touch with the higher nature in an attempt to make them drop the vice.
Introduction
Though drugs and alcohol has been present in the world from the time of our forefathers, their use and abuse has risen tremendously during the last few decades. Today, nothing worries a parent of teenage children more than the possibility of their children being addicted to drugs and alcohol (Mahel, 2003; Domingos et al., 2008). The problem has been worsened by easy accessibility of the drugs and lack of clear cut policies from governments on how the problem should be controlled. The ever rising cost of living, poverty, and financial instability are also driving more people to self destruction by making them to depend more on drugs and alcohol to ‘forget’ their problems.
Various theories and schools of thoughts have been established to inquire and offer useful insights on why people continue to abuse drugs and alcohol, and how they could be helped out of the situation. One of them is behaviorism, which psychologists believe it’s useful in helping individuals with drug and alcohol related problems. Behaviorism confines itself to the objective study of quantifiable and observable characteristics of behavior, excluding subjective phenomena such as motives and emotions (Baum, 2004; Davis et al., 2008). This paper attempts to uncover if behaviorism is indeed useful in helping individuals to tackle the problem of alcoholism and drug dependency
Effects of alcohol and drug abuse
Drugs and alcohol are a major problem in society today. Even with concerted efforts from a number of stakeholders, the people who abuse drugs seem to augment in number as the years advance. The prevalence of drug abuse is highest among teenagers and young people; the bulk of the countries productive population. This presents a real need for the issue to be addressed as a matter of urgency. Below are some of the effects of alcohol and drug dependency.
Physical effects
Dependence and prolonged use of drugs and alcohol has adverse effects on the physical wellbeing of the individual. After ingestion, alcohol is carried through the blood stream to the brain where it causes impairment and affects the person’s normal functioning. It depresses the nervous system and can damage vital body organs (Clune, 2008). It is linked to medical conditions such as gastrointestinal problems, high blood pressure and several types of cancer, namely; cancer of the colon, stomach, liver and the pancreas. Different types of drugs also produce varying effects on the body. Marijuana has been linked to liver damage, increased heart rate and anxiety. Cocaine has been linked to chest pain, seizures, respiratory and cardiac arrest. Sedative hypnotics such as tranquillizers can cause memory impairment and opiates such as heroine can elevate blood pressure and cause pulmonary complications (Davis et al.).
Psychological effects
Continued use of alcohol breeds addiction among other psychological disorders. One looses control and becomes the slave of an overwhelming, compulsive desire to consume the drug. The realization that one has become dependent is usually a big blow to their self esteem. They may feel out of control, worthless and unable to control their lives. This prompts them to sink into depression and they may even try to commit suicide (Wozniak, 2007).
Social effects
The social life of any drug-alcohol dependent person is usually adversely affected. The habit may prompt them to withdraw from social life as they do not want to be found out by their friends and relatives. They may fail to fulfill certain promises that they had made to their friends or any responsibilities that they may have towards their families and this in effect, alienates them from their loved ones who may not understand their sudden change of behavior. It is the resultant solitude and loneliness that eventually drives them even deeper into their dependence. Family and friends may also feel like or actually abandon their addicted kin especially if they keep on denying their problem or if they keep relapsing into the habit (Clune, 2008; Calderia et al., 2008).
Behaviorism, alcohol and drug dependency
Behaviorists, according to Omrod (2003) seek to explain the behavior of humans and animals entirely in terms of measurable and observable responses to environmental stimuli. Basically, a behavior is a psychological reaction to environmental stimuli. According to the theorists, mental processes are irrelevant and unscientific. This theory was advanced further by American behaviorist, B.F. Skinner, who said that individual habits, which could be learned or unlearned plays an important role in conditioning emotions. In the same vein, it is worthy mentioning that the behaviorist theory gave rise to the therapeutic system of behavior modification. Therapy, as we all know, shapes behavior through a variety of processes referred to as conditioning (Clune, 2008; Davis et al., 2008).
Behaviorism as a learning theory
As already mentioned, the theory of behaviorism was developed by B.F. Skinner, who relied heavily on previous works of Guthrie, Tolman, Thorndike, and Hull. These investigators based their works around three principal assumptions. First, they assumed that behaviors are shaped by the environment. Second, they assumed that there must be a manifestation of behavior change if learning has taken place. Third, they came up with the principles of reinforcement and continuity as mechanisms used to explain the learning process (Clune, 2008). To date, behavioral theorists argue that learning takes place when an individual acquires new behavior through conditioning.
There are two types of conditioning. Classical conditioning, credited to Pavlov, occurs when a behavior turns to a reflex response of a stimulus. In his experiments, Pavlov discovered that dogs could learn to associate the sound of bell to mean that it was feeding time. When the bell rang, the dogs started to salivate even when there was no food. Here, salivating is the reflex response, whereas the sound of a bell is the stimulus (Davies et al., 2008). Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner on the basis that a behavior can be reinforced through a system of punishments or rewards. He argued that reinforcing a behavior through offering a reward increased the chances of that behavior recurring again; while punishing that behavior reduced the chances of its recurrence (Citation).
Classical conditioning and the treatment of drugs’ dependence
Some classical conditioning techniques such as aversive conditioning can be employed in cases where individuals wish to break free from a life threatening condition such as drug use or alcoholism. In line with the principles of classical conditioning, addiction occurs because of the pleasurable physiological effects of these substances which can be referred to as the unconditional stimuli and the actual taste of drugs which is the conditional stimuli. One wants to continue abusing the drugs due to the good feeling that it brings. If the conditional stimuli are paired with a negative response, say, nausea and vomiting the result will be an aversion to the unconditional stimulus which is the taste of the drugs (Zebrowski, 2007).
This technique involves introducing unpleasantness as a control agent in dealing with alcoholism and drug use. This assertion depends on the view that a response definitely terminates a primary aversive event. We all want to get away from situations that are unpleasant to us through negative reinforcement. According to Martin and Pear (2002), proponents believe that necessary coping responses can be attained without undue suffering through avoidance learning. This method has been used mostly by psychologists who introduce foul smelling medications for individuals to use whenever they are embraced by the desire to take drugs. The foul smelling-nausea causing prescriptions take out the desire to engage in drugs. Repeated exposure conditions the individual’s mind not to take alcohol or drugs (Maher, 2003).
Operant conditioning and the treatment of drugs’ dependency
This technique is deeply rooted in B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory. In this kind of therapy, individuals are motivated to change their behaviors by being promised some set rewards (Martin & Pear, 2002). Punishment has also been largely used as an aversive control technique. According to Maher (2003) and Clune (2008), the probability of a response producing stimuli is effectively decreased by punishment. But for it to be effective, Punishment must be administered immediately and with intensity. This method has been used by parents and institutions of learning to curtail the drug vice. If a child is punished immediately after engaging in drug abuse, chances are that he may not repeat the mistake again. Though successful, the therapy has been strictly resisted by many people, especially the human rights activists.
Application of Behaviorism theory to drugs’ dependence
In classical conditioning, we have seen that if the conditional stimuli are paired with a negative response, say, nausea and vomiting the result will be an aversion to the unconditional stimulus which is the taste of the drugs (Zebrowski, 2007). This basically involves introducing unpleasantness as a control agent in dealing with alcoholism and drug use. In operant conditioning, we have seen that alcoholism and drug abuse can be checked through the introduction of a system of rewards and punishments.
In the application of behaviorism, psychologists must be able to instill in the addicts the concept that any unwanted behavior, no matter how bad it is, can effectively be changed by a vivid demonstration of the desired behavior. They must also be able to show to the addicts the consistent rewards that are tied with the efforts of stopping the habit of alcoholism and drug abuse. The rewards may be in the form of good health, good concentration, and financial independence. The punishments may be in the form of poor heath, life-threatening diseases, and poverty. Therapeutic activities towards rehabilitation may include, but not limited to making the addicts rehearse the desired behaviors, fulfilling specific assignments, or exposing the addicts to foul smelling medications when they have the urge to engage in the practice (“Scientific approaches”, 2003).
This helps the alcohol and drugs addicts to gain control in three vital areas. First is the stimulus control, which will help the addicts to walk away from situations that are associated with alcohol and drugs indulgence. Stimulus control will also help the addicts to learn to use their time in activities that are incompatible with drugs abuse. Second, behavior theory will help the addicts to control the urges towards alcohol and substance abuse as the patients are helped to recognize and change the feelings, thoughts, and plans that leads them to drug indulgence. Finally, the theory helps addicts in social control, whereby social systems or rewards and punishments can be used on the individual to help him get out of the quagmire (“Scientific approaches,” 2003). Such social systems rewards must be seen to reward alcohol abstinence and punish indulgence.
In real life situations, psychologists must first identify the specific target behaviors that need to be changed for an alcoholic to recover. Psychologists must have prior knowledge of how often the individual engages in alcoholism and the circumstances in which he is more likely to engage in alcoholism. For example, they need to know how many sticks of cigarettes an individual smokes every day. They also need to know if the individual smokes more at certain times or with certain people. They must come up with all the stimuli that bring about alcoholism. For example, you may smoke a cigarette due to stress or anxiety so that you may feel relaxed. In this case, stress and anxiety are stimuli that cause smoking, while smoking behavior is reinforced by the feeling of relaxation (Martin & Pear, 2002; Domingos et al, 2008).
Afterwards, psychologists must strive to control the stimuli. This can be accomplished by avoiding, eliminating, or reducing the instances of these stimuli. In here, the aversive conditioning techniques developed by psychologists come into play. A schedule of frequent reinforcement must also be provided. Positive reinforcement rather than punishment should always be encouraged (Martin & Pear, 2002; Baum, 2004).
Behaviorism as a hindrance of treatment
According to the theorists, every behavior must be reinforced. It therefore follows that alcoholism and drug dependency are reinforced behaviors. It is often hard for psychologists to know or discern the reinforcement agents of alcoholic behaviors. Even when they know the agents, they come across another brick wall in that alcoholism and drug dependency are individual decisions and therefore, exposing some addicts to nausea-causing medications in the hope of cutting the dependence never works at all. Some scholars have argued that dogs used in the experiment cannot be equated to human beings. People have cognitive senses and therefore make individual decisions on what to do with their lives. Human rights activists have also argued that punishment as a form of curtailing a behavior can actually reinforce the behavior. In these perspectives, behaviorism can hinder the treatment of alcohol and drug dependency.
Alternative therapy: Spiritual treatment
Behaviorism as a method of treatment can be made more effective if it is used together with spiritual treatment. In spiritual treatment, individual addicts are brought in touch with their higher nature. Individuals are made to feel that it is only the higher authority that can help them come out of their conditions since their problems are connected with the higher authority. This technique uses methods such as meditation to help the alcohol and drug addicts to live harmoniously with their spiritual side (“Spiritual treatment,” 2007).
Though spiritual treatment is not founded on scientific principles, it has been found to help in the treatment of alcohol and drug-related problems especially to people who believe in the existence of a higher being. Through it, drug addicts are able to improve on their emotional and mental balance, thereby effectively kicking out the vice. Proponents of this concept believe that any type of healing must include a spiritual dimension (“Spiritual treatment,” 2007). The only problem with this concept is that it cannot be used to solve alcohol and drug dependency problems on individuals who do not confess to a higher authority.
Conclusion and further research area
Behaviorism is quite effective in changing behaviors, especially when aversive conditioning techniques are used. It has been used by psychologists time and again in identifying the various environmental factors that continue to lead people to the vice. The fight against alcoholism and drug abuse is far from being won. The mechanisms that have been put in place are quite repetitive and have not been very effective as the number of substance abusers continues to escalate. The answer to this crisis lies in research. The efforts shown by the various research organizations are commendable but a lot more can still be done. There is need for regular surveys and evaluations so as to establish the real situation on the ground, the statistics and emerging new trends. This will help the various stakeholders to initiate appropriate protective measures. In this respect, the government needs to allocate more money to wards funding of research
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