Introduction to Emergency Management
People while responding to disasters immediately think of first responders; police, fire, emergency medical, and likewise others because these are the people to provide us facilities to escape sudden disasters. Emergency Management is a process which is undertaken by a person or their staff representing dozens of agencies or organizations. This process functions as a full life cycle of any disaster which includes recovery, response, mitigation, and preparedness. Emergency Management has become more professionalized and has transformed due to the rapid growth in higher education programs which are being designed to provide knowledge essential for emergency managers. Its most basic purpose is to control weaknesses and understand the system. The emergency managers must constantly control all the systems and check where the vulnerability lies. Thus emergency management can also be said as the work procedure after an emergency by a person or a group of people working in an agency. (Drabek, 2007)
Cultural Constraints of Emergency Management
Homeland security means to protect the rights of human and to protect them from terrorists and also to minimize the damage occurred and recover from the attacks if occurred. After the attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon institutions to safeguard homeland and inability to perform tasks were established. It was thought by some of the people that these programs should be made a larger unit so that the outcome from this can be maximized. Different cultural constraints of emergency management are been discussed as below:
- Disaster Agent: Most importantly for the American people, the panelist pointed at was that they should be fully aware of the scope, intensity, and commitment of their enemies.
- Management Paradigm: Secondly, for them, there should be unity of command at every level from the President down to the Commander in the field so that the homeland can be secured.
- Scope of Event: Disasters vary every time so what they emphasized was not to focus on the possible and not on the probable. In this way, they can reduce the risk factor and plan and train on the possible vulnerabilities.
- Intergovernmental system: In this program, they suggest that the horizontal pattern of relationships should be brought up if the emergency process is to be made effective.
- Content: The experts were concerned as to what the content will be and no one ever supported the undergraduate degree program which was related to homeland security. Emergency Administration and Planning Program became the first undergraduate degree program at the University of North Texas. (Drabek, 2007).
Emergency Management in Higher Education
In higher education, Emergency Management was first introduced at the North Dakota State University which was conducted in the “Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Emergency Management.” Emergency Management programs are conducted to review and improve and fully integrate students from all hazards. It is developed to have a written plan which incorporates medical, mental, health and transportation need to include those with disabilities and other circumstances. It also co ordinate’s with the local and the state government emergency management efforts. (Drabek, 2007).
Historical Focus of Emergency Management
Earlier in the Twentieth century, scientists did not focus on the consequences faced by humans both in the long and short term. In these facts, the events worth mentioning are the seminal documentation of responses to the Halifax harbor explosion by Prince, Sorokin’s treaty, and many others. Later, University team officials interviewed victims from the disaster and completed a case study, which became the beginning of the Focus on Emergency Management. (Drabek, 2007).
Emergency Management Theory
The theory is an idea or a thought which has no backup data if it is being defined casually. But science describes theory differently which says it is an explanation that can be tested, can be false, and has evidence with it. Emergency management theory comes under the category of sociology. This theory gives the new ways and methodologies that can be used for the prevention of disasters and emergencies to take place. It also guides that information and knowledge should be given in advance so that the emergencies can be avoided and if they take place then how to deal with them. The emergency management theory can not be defined as a hard and fast rule or theory as it changes according to the nature of the disaster. Emergency management theory can also be known as the application of a framework that has been conceptualized covering all the issues and problems that can take place in a particular field. (Klenow, 2008).
Development of Emergency Management Theory
The development of emergency management theory came into existence by putting the concepts into the stage of operation. Many concepts exist in any field and when these concepts are brought into the phase of operation then many aspects can cause the situations of emergency so for handling such issues and emergencies this theory was designed and developed. The concepts were basically observed and then they were applied into the context of operation and then there we needed the emergency management theory because in the phase of operation there can be any kind of emergency that could have been faced so this was the reason for the development of this theory. (Hodges, 2008).
Future of Emergency Management Theory
Much more development is being done in the field of emergency management. The development of the department of homeland security and its integration with the Federal Emergency Management Agency is a big step in this account. The managers are struggling a lot in introducing new technologies and methodologies to improve the process of emergency management. The department is being provided with sufficient funds and also the department is taking benefits from the innovations in the technological and industrial areas. The training sessions and education is being provided to the people who are associated with this department. All these facts show that emergency management has to do a lot in the future and it would be facing many changes and advancements. (McEntire, 2004).
Disasters are Sociological Constructs
Disaster can be termed as a sociological problem. Disaster according to Gary Kreps is an unusual event or situation that takes place in society. The disasters involve historical situations and also social as well as physical damage. As the definition of disaster is having a perspective of social harm so in this way the disaster can be termed as a sociological construct. Scope, duration, length, and magnitude can be the attributes of any disaster. (Drabek, 2007).
Command and Control
Command and Control mean giving orders or directing someone with authority. It can also be defined as having control over someone. ICS is known as Incident Command System which is a standardized on-scene concept in the United States of America. It was developed gradually within the wildfire community. After its establishment, U.S Coast Guard first adopted this system. Thousands of control authorities use ICS successfully. It has eight crucial components; Common terminology, Modular Organization, Integrated Communications, Unified Command Structure, Consolidated Action Plans, Manageable Span of Control, Pre designated Incident Facilities, and Comprehensive Resource Management. The only concern of ICS was that it was a closed system that can not promote adaptability and creativity. ICS became the foundation of NIMS which was adopted in 2004. NIMS stands for National Incident Management System, and enables all the responders at jurisdiction levels and spreads discipline amongst all to work together more effectively and efficiently. It works with NRP and NIMS to accomplish goals such as aligning national coordinates, capabilities, and resources, ensuring discipline, managing incidents at the lowest possible level, provision of ways to operate events. (Harrald, 2006).
CCM is known as Command and Control Model. It constructs both the social aspect of reality and embraced one as well. As the model was adopted by the civil defense CCM became a huge disaster which was commonly practiced throughout the last half of the twentieth century in the United States as well as many other nations. (Fischer, 2001).
Theoretically Based Practically Applied
Emergency management has although been defined as a theoretical aspect but it has been implemented to the large extent and therefore it has become possible to low down the rate of disasters that were taking place in history. The managers have done a lot in the area of emergency management and in the future, more hard work is required. Emergency management is being practiced and applied in almost every organization and the social department now and it shows the practical implementation of emergency management theory. If we compare the situations of the past then it is clear that disasters have been recovered to the large extent. There is a very positive role played by emergency managers in society today. The application of information and knowledge in the management side of any organization is proving the change and adaptation of emergency management in the past few years. The emergency manager’s job is also facing a lot of changes and evaluations. The developments and betterments in the field of emergency management are changing the image of emergency management and are also helping in the progress of all the sectors. The basic factor that is forcing the implication of emergency management is the human system response to the disasters. For the proper implementation of emergency management, it is important to design the framework in an appropriate way so that the managers can efficiently perform their responsibilities. (Britton, 1999).
Relationship between Environment, Culture, and Disaster
There is a strong relationship between environment, culture, and disasters. There is a culture of every city, country, area, or region and that culture includes problems like terrorism and it also has the influence of everything over itself. The culture affects the overall surrounding and environment and it is something that can not be ignored. The culture and environment are very much closely related and the integration of environment and culture generates different types of disasters. The deadly diseases, bombing attacks, hurricanes, earthquakes are also disasters and all these are the result of the environment and the culture that the particular area is following. There are different phenomena of culture. The disasters include all types of harm within it like social, physical and cultural, and so on. The relationship goes in the sense that the disasters take place in the environment or society. Disaster can be described as complete social as well as environmental phenomena as disasters occur in the technological or in the natural environment. Social and natural disasters can be differentiated by looking at the behavior of the disaster.
Hazards are considered as mainly persistent and are thought to influence or force the society to perform the acts that can cause hazards but still are tries to be avoided. There are so large numbers of hazards that exist in society and the number of hazards is so large that the society has not still absorbed all types of hazards into it. Disasters are the threats that are caused when there is the adaptation of something and the society not always can give response to the disasters. But for the hazards, society must respond and stand in front of the hazard. Hence a proper framework must be developed to deal with the disasters as well as with hazards. (Smith, 1999).
Cultural and Societal Construction of Catastrophe
Disasters are considered as physical disorders having effects on materialistic things. The disasters can be generated socially as well as culturally. The characteristics of culture, as well as society, have a great impact on any disaster. These characteristics of culture and society also have impacted the response that is given when any disaster takes place. The experience, perception, conceptualization, and response are the factors that are affected by the characteristics of the culture and society. The disasters are never caused by the integration of the force that can cause a disaster with the human society but the disasters occur when the force that can cause destruction integrates with the society in a communally designed way of vulnerability. These weaknesses or vulnerabilities are generated from the location, sociopolitical arrangement, construction patterns, and philosophy. Vulnerabilities are greatly related to the historical aspects and hence have a great impact on disasters as compare to the physical forces. (Smith, 1999).
Cultural Responses to Disasters
There are different types of responses that are given to a particular disaster depending on the nature of the disaster being faced. The different responses can be a warning, emergency, impacts, aid, revival, and rebuilding. Sometimes the disasters that have been caused are so much severe that the communities or the societies may also get splintered and it is hard for them to recover. People sometimes also consider that after any disaster they are getting the chance to improve their conditions by renovating the things and in the phase of reconstruction and rebuilding they try to improve the life of the society as well as the life of an individual. While many people do not think about renovating but they just want to bring life back to the old routine that they used to follow in the past before the disaster. They just want uniformity and stability in their lives. Hence the type of response given by the people depends on the social identity of the people. Many people manage to survive after the disasters but some people just end up in pieces. The experiences that are faced by the people who are facing the disasters are never universal or the same they tend to change according to the cultural effects. It is also said that the renovation does not take place in a similar order so there can not be any general framework for the recovery of the disasters. (Smith, 1999).
Disaster Recovery
An event bringing great damage, loss, destruction, and devastation to life in a sudden manner is known as a Disaster. It may occur from Earthquakes or nuclear meltdown or even slowness of drought or toxic exposure. Disasters can be natural disasters or disasters caused after some process. Disaster recovery is the use of processes and techniques that are aimed to reduce the after-effects of the disaster. If we define vulnerability in terms of disaster recovery then vulnerability is the position that a certain person or a group of people attain in the society, at this time this position refers to the location. Some people are more vulnerable and some people are less vulnerable so if the vulnerability is controlled and during the planning phase if a vulnerability is given importance then disaster can be prevented to a great extent and people can avoid facing a lot of trouble and problem. The term reutilization refers to the proper backup. It is recommended that while preparing for any disaster in advance it is necessary as well as beneficial for having a strong backup that can be implemented after the disaster. The utilization will save a lot and it allows using the material again for the reconstruction. The phoenix effect is concerned with the time after the disaster. After the disaster has taken place and now it is time to renovate or reconstruct then this phoenix effect is used to make observations and to analyze that what should be the response of the administration belonging to a certain culture in terms of the economy. (Smith, 1999).
Review of the Literature
This essay deals with the description of disasters, hazards, and other issues and problems that can cause as a result of any process or operation. So it is a fact that as a result of any operation there can be a disaster and for dealing with such emergency disaster there should be planning. This planning is called emergency management. Emergency management deals with the predefined and preplanned steps that would be taken in case of an expected disaster. Emergency management is very much helpful well as it prevents many big losses that can occur if the emergency is not being handled. Emergency management theory was felt to be needed when the operation phase for any concept was about to take place. Then at the level of operation, there were many things and situations possible which proved the need for emergency management. The emergency or disasters can be said as a social terminology as the disasters take place in the environment as well as social context. At first, emergency management was only at the theoretical level but now it has been implemented to a large extent as it is needed by almost every organization and this implementation has enhanced the role of managers and has proven that emergency management is crucial now for every organization. It has also been discussed in the essay that the impact of disaster is never the same on all the people who are suffering from it. Some people renovate things by having a thought that they have to improve themselves while others just want to bring back the consistency that they had in the past. Hence this essay describes the importance of emergency management.
Vulnerability and its association with disasters
Risk factors and either they are financial, social, political, or environmental have become in the interest of analysts all over the globe. Developed countries commonly known as the First World, have more control and have a more conventional calculus of security comparing to that of the Third and Fourth World countries. Natural hazards and human-induced calamities have more effect rather than those posed by the dumping of industrial wastes, unsafe chemical production, and the pollution of air and water. Disaster from being a physical happening that requires large technological solution now mainly is viewed as a result of human actions. Hazards can be natural but a disaster is not which has been more persuasively argued by Terry Cannon. Vulnerability can be defined as a more complex character that has been produced from several factors derived generally from class, gender, and ethnicity. Since the late Nineteenth Century technical interventions have changed approach which seeks to combine with the risk from which people and communities are being exposed with the ability to strive with its consequences. By linking vulnerability to disaster and then to development it shares many issues such as the overlapping discourse of social security and capable of sustaining livelihoods, from which individuals and communities are linked and attempt to cope up with risk management, uncertainty, and insecurity in their lives. By employing vulnerability as a conceptual framework the disaster from being a natural calamity appear as a cause of unsolved development problem. (Bankoff, 2003).
Using Vulnerability for the Prevention of Disasters
It was always assumed and considered that natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes created huge disasters but the after-effects of such disasters were believed to be minimized by preparing for such disasters or by using the actions for the post-care of the disaster. Mostly the blame for disaster is always given to nature but some disasters are caused by the people themselves. The hazards are natural but the disasters are having some interconnection with the activities of humans. Sometimes the hazards are converted into disasters just because of wrong handling while preparing for them or reducing them. Vulnerability can be defined as the attribute of a group of people as well as individuals who are living in or dwelling in a social, economic, or natural region and the same region the people can be differentiated from each other by the value they have got in the society and then they are divided into the more or less vulnerable groups. It is believed that the disasters are not natural but they affect more to the people who are facing them more closely because of their vulnerability to that risk. Hence vulnerability is a factor that can be used to control the amount of damage that has been created by any disaster. The planning and preparedness should be done before the disaster take place and the people of the society should be made protective by making them less vulnerable to the disaster. Self and social protection should be given to the people and emergency planning management should look for the people who seem to be more close to the area that is prone to danger. Hence vulnerability can be used to prevent the amount of disaster. (Merriman, 1993).
Contribution of Disaster Research in Emergency Management
The term disaster has been defined by many scientists and other contributors and all have given some different attributes of the disaster. The reason is people define things according to their perspectives and thoughts. In simple words, disaster can be defined as a cause or outcome. According to Quarantelli, the research of disaster is very much crucial and he considers the development in the field of disaster research as an attempt and it is also dependent on the improvement of the theoretical superstructure and that superstructure is related to some agreement regarding the occurrence. The research in the area of disasters can improve emergency management to the large extent according to Qurantelli as if the management team is aware of the type of disaster and the precautions and post actions that are needed for certain kinds of disaster then obviously they would be able to prepare themselves for handling the disaster. So a lot of research is needed about the disasters, their kinds, after effects, and then post care that is needed. The types of disasters should be first searched and then the work should begin from there. This step will generalize the work and will help in minimizing the period that will be taken for performing the research. Types of disasters can be judged by looking at the types of organizations and the types of society. Hence the understanding of a disaster and then researches in that type of disaster can be called the main element for the success of emergency management. (Quarantelli, 1998).
Deconstruction of Command and Control
The concept of command and control is not always applicable efficiently. Rather it can be deconstructed when it is being applied in various systems. The concept of command and control is sometimes applied to natural resources by extending the concept. When this concept is applied to natural resources then the results can be undesirable and also unwanted. The reason is that the command and control process is applied to the natural resources for the purposes like changing the overall structure of the resource, its functionality, and so on. Most of the time the command and control concept is applied for the increase in production or for maintaining persistency. Hence the overall need to use the command and control process is to make the natural resources function in a way that is intended by the human which is sometimes not possible. But it is sometimes not possible to make the natural systems predictable in such cases the results are unwanted and the concept is deconstructed. The natural resources and systems are very complex and there are times when the human mind can not reach the level of their complexity which makes the results and outcomes unwanted. (Holling, 1996).
Future Planning of Emergency Management
By having a thorough reading of this paper it can be concluded that in the future the area of emergency management needs a lot of attention and time to improve and enhance its self by introducing new technologies and new systems. The managers in this team should be more efficient and should be provided with the training sessions so that they can deal the situations of emergency. It is also required that special teams should be made to do in-depth researches regarding every disaster, its type, and nature so that the post-care can be done properly. Steps should be taken that can reduce the chances of disasters taking place. Social problems should be brought in front and hence their possible problems can be known. All the emergency management programs should be integrated with homeland security so that society is prevented from disasters. The cultural and societal aspects should be kept in mind and then the emergencies should be planned. (Drabek, 2008).
References
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