Disasters
Disasters are random acts of nature or human activities which are symbolized by extremes in life and they cause stress to human beings. Hurricane Katrina remains one of the deadliest storms ever to hit the United States.
There are various methods applied in efforts to combat disasters and their aftermath. Some of the attempts made have met stiff resistance from civilians, while others have been overtaken by time. There are three main approaches that have been used over time producing different results.
Introduction
Human ecology has several parts which involve the study of individual groups in the aspect of biology, nutrition, sociology, economic, age, environmental and such akin factors. These are some of the aspects that play an important role in analyzing and determining the situation and conditions of the population after a disaster, they also determine how different groups feel the effects of a disaster.
Civil Defence
Civil defence is a strategy undertaken by the United States government to equip civilians with knowledge on how to minimise damage caused by enemy attack this entails, rescue efforts, Medicare and evacuation. The citizens were taught how to handle post attack situations in such a way that further damage is avoided. This concept encountered serious hitches mostly due to resistance it met from citizens.
There was little acceptance on this program by citizens, and some times the resistance even cumulated to civil disobedience and street demonstrations like it happened in New York between 1955 and 1961. The same scenarios of resistance were experienced in the late 70s. Heightened nuclear activity worldwide created general disinterest in the whole program amongst citizens.
The argument that was posed was that, there was little the people could do in the event of an attack but with the bombing of World trade Centre in September, 11 2001, Civilians realised that other forms of attacks apart from nuclear could be launched on them and they embraced this program.
There should be harmonisation of all the activities of the civil defence; this will facilitate coordinated response and communication in times of disaster.
It is inevitable that disasters will strike; it is therefore important to include the subject in school curriculum since this will ease the burden of recruiting citizens as volunteers as well as bring down the cost of the whole process, at the same time equipping all citizens with the necessary knowhow on disaster management. (Oakes 1994).
Home Land security
The department of homeland security has created FEMA, a sub department bestowed with the responsibility of assisting victims in case of a disaster. There is also a program that trains emergency responders on chemical, biological and nuclear weapons as well as explosives.
Disasters will for ever happen, their nature is unpredictable this calls for comprehensive precautionary measures to be taken in order to effectively control disasters. There are situations when the government may suspend some functions executed by some government agencies or arms depending on the nature of the calamity.
Freedoms and some rights are also curtailed and this happens when the disaster poses a threat to national security or poses danger to human beings. The United States constitution does not provide acts or special powers to be used during emergencies, the assumption is that this may kindle the emergency and therefore compromising the real situation on the ground.
The constitution provides that national government should let individual state handle their emergencies according to respective state laws and policies. The police in these states are bestowed with the responsibility of protecting property, lives and the general citizenâs welfare. (Banks2011).
Disaster Approach
Pundits in disaster affairs have attempted to explain some approaches that can be used to explain the course taken by a disaster, and different effects it has on people of different social economic backgrounds.
Technocratic Approach
Technocratic Disaster approach employs geographic information systems approach which is a scientific method that employs the use of mapping and geological knowledge to predict ,prepare and respond when natural disasters like Earthquakes, Tsunamis and any other disaster that emanates from natural causes strikes.
This method applies testing of real time emergency equipment, disaster communication channels and management assembled to be on the look out when disaster strikes (Waal 2006). Pundits view this as a weak and in effective way of handling disaster due to the scope they take. One definite thing about a disaster is that it can strike any time and in any way.
With the employment of GIS, a wide loophole is left since disasters take many forms and this approach is not comprehensive since it does not cover other disaster avenues apart from the natural causes. This model has been tried but the reality is it that whatever transpired was just like a drill where data was collected but actual implementation was not effected. Hewittâs (1983).
There is also another takes at disasters which views them as socio economic problems, rather than a culmination of natural happenings. The model seeks to venture beyond what would be called natural causes.
In the yester years disasters were viewed as one off happenings which were to be handled by the government. This model failed to take into consideration the social economic factors, a situation that left the victims more isolated largely due to their poor economic status.
The concept of poverty eradication was mooted as a way of disaster management, since the vulnerable mostly are the poor. This brought about the on set of disaster programs that are planned for and financed, how ever they fell short of addressing the poverty question. (Yodmani1999) argues that the biggest short coming of this program is that the poor, the elderly who are the most vulnerable are left out n plannning.
Instead the wells to do citizens are enlightened so as to accept any eventuality. Some of the practices include like stockpiling relief food an activity undertaken by the well to do citizens and yet their risks are lower.
Poverty and vulnerability.
It has been a common conception that the poor are most susceptible to disasters, this does not mean that this is the only group that warrants all the attention. There has been an argument that the poor in times of disasters have little or nothing to loose, even when data is being collected on the economic effects of a disaster, most of what is captured is on those victims with economic might, the informal economies are largely ignored since they are deemed as inconsequential (Terry 1994)
First it is important to reduce poverty since this way part of the battle would have been accomplished, how ever it is important to note that other aspects like ethnicity, race, community structure and class amongst others play a major role in determining ones vulnerability.
A community might be economically disadvantaged but in times of disasters there are other strong factors emanating from race, culture, and such factors that are employed and they help the community withstand the calamity. (Maskrey 1999).it is therefore imperative for planners to take into consideration all factors and incorporate the victim groupâs methods, since they help in times of disasters.
Human Ecology Approach
This is a model that seeks to look at disasters from human environmental aspect, some factors that come into play include geographical, political, sociological and psychological. This model takes a broader look in to matters of disasters at the same time offering a comprehensive approach since core matters of human life are tackled.
There need more that surveys and studies since there are naturally given divisions on all aspects of life like age, culture, that play a role in shaping the course of a disaster.(AG 2005) This method suggests that tackling of a disaster should approach different avenues since this is the only way to reach to every body.
It is important to note that when a disaster strikes, human beings tend to retreat to their respective divisions and they are best accesses as par the groupings. Each of these groups presents a unique set of challenges that are best handled separately.
Solutions
Disaster response calls for all inclusive plan formulation including the poor, since some groups will have other avenues other than the conventional ways of overcoming calamities.
This are alternatives that are used internally, and if they get the backing of the relevant authorities they speed up the process of post disaster recovery. There should be a comprehensive plan well understood and accepted by all citizens irrespective of their social economic status.
Economic
Economic situation of any given group is a factor that has effects on a disaster. New Orleans is predominantly a black race county while Mississippi is a white dominated county. In many sections of New Orleans there was no electricity for a period of over four weeks while power was restored in Mississippi within three days.
There were high death rates in New Orleans since there were many elderly people living alone these ones were hard hit by the disaster compared to Mississippi. In the latter county the standards of living were higher and hence people had many options when the tragedy struck.
They were able to arrange for quick evacuation and the injured and the sick were swiftly taken care of this was facilitated by high economic levels in Mississippi. In the New Orleans they depended almost entirely on government and aid organisations for food shelter and medication.
Environmental
The environmental aspect of human ecology played a major role in determining the out come of the hurricane. In comparing the urban setting of the two counties, in New Orleans there was congestion in structures coupled with dense populations. Many structures in New Orleans were old and of lower quality in workmanship, in comparison to those in Mississippi.
This made them susceptible to disasters and hurricane Katrina did a lot of devastation. Some parts of what is New Orleans today were reclaimed from low lands and levees constructed to prevent high sea water from getting to the land. All this was done to create space for town expansion, and this made people settle on low grounds which contributed to high damage on property and high mortality rates. (LCA 2006).
Psychological
Hurricane Katrina brought about untold suffering t of the victims due to the nature of households in New Orleans, there were high cases of depression and anxiety disorders as compared to Mississippi. The main reason being that there were many elderly people suffering in loneliness and when they were exposed to the tragedy they were very likely to get psychological disorders.
The damage on the infrastructure as well as the levels and durations of being submerged was higher in New Orleans as compared to Mississippi and this increased the prevalence of mental illnesses. About 80% of New Orleans was submerged for weeks.
Family
There are domestic or personal issues that come into play on this field. The family system is a determining factor on how to cope with a tragedy. There is usually a heavier impact on single parents, as compared to complete family units since there are more places to seek refuge from and to offer assistance. Well knit family units are better placed to handle disasters.
New Orleans is ranked as the third unhappiest city in the United States; divorce rates are high since it is ranked 26th in the US. While in depression it was ranked 25th. There are also high unemployment rates hitting as 27 %. The unemployment rates in Mississippi were then in all time high of 22% which also impacted negatively since with low financial power, families were bound to disintegrate.
There was a huge population in poverty which could not afford to resettle and cater for their families else where, and this led to men deserting their wives and children. Most of these had to rely on the government and humanitarian organisations for food and shelter.
Medicare
Medicare of one of the worst hit sectors in New Orleans, the hurricane come and submerged hospitals affecting thousands who needed medical attention. These come at that time when it was badly needed as there were many injuries. The largest hospital, the Big Charity in New Orleans was closed down and this brought about untold suffering to patients who had to do without the required care for as much as three weeks.
The injured had also to endure lots of suffering due to lack of proper medical attention. The situation was different in Mississippi since the hospitals suffered minimal damaged and they were operating almost to capacity, this brought a big influx of patients stretching facilities. Other in patients bore the burnt of Katina as they had to be airlifted to other facilities.
Disaster Myths
There are several myths that circulate around trying to demystify the aftermath of a tragedy and they contribute to misconceptions and spread of wrong facts about disasters.
Myth 1
There goes a myth that disasters happen at random in a democratic way and that hurricanes chemical spill kills all in discriminatory. The reality of the matter is that disasters will happen but the impact felt, differs depending on some factors like social class age and economic muscle amongst others.
A heat weave occurred in Chicago in 1995 and with the temperatures soaring to between 100-120 degrees; it killed more than 700 people. 75% of the victims were elderly people above 65 years and most of them happened to live in isolation. Some of their dwelling units were neglected by service providers as well as owners and some systems like air conditioning were not functioning.
Most deaths were not caused by the heat alone, but by lack of any form of help even to those confined in their houses. (Spana2005). This is a clear indication that those in lower social classes and senior citizen are at a greater risk in times of disasters.
Myth 2
A myth says that it times of disaster people will act selfishly and only save them selves. This is not true since in times of calamities people behave responsibly and take care of their neighbours. There are usually combined efforts to save and rescue the affected. Instances like fire tragedies have proved that there are heroes who even risk their lives in order to save others.
The undue attention given by the media to those engaging in negative vices or selfish acts like looting at the expense of those engaging in positive rescue work is responsible for the wrong impression created amongst the masses. Journalists tend to give more air time to side shows to spice their stories, and this leaves a much distorted impression of the real situation on rescue efforts and human behaviour.
Myth 3
There is a belief that if people get too much information on the disaster they are bound to behave erratically, over react or panic. The truth is that this happens if the information provided is vague, or it was communicated by someone who is not abreast with crisis communication or the disaster details, this can give rise to a situation where there is confusion or disillusionment.
Majority of disaster victims will very much comply with the rescue operations and adhere to set rescue and safety guidelines. People will also behave in an orderly manner but this has to be preceded by good communication that will assure all is in control.
To facilitate total compliance, the communication should be done by qualified personnel so that the information disseminated would be just enough mo make people understand what is happening, and it assists the people in behaving and acting rationally.
Myth 4
Children feel little or no effect caused by disaster, this myth banks on the fact that in the initial stages after a disaster, children might not show any sign of disturbance like nightmares or restlessness. They seem like they are coping with the tragedy without any change in behaviour.
The reality of the matter is that children get affected by disasters just like adults but they postpone their reactions until when they feel it is safe for them to express their feelings which manifests it self in their behaviours. In many situations such children develop erratic behaviours and counselling is required to assist the child regain the normal mental status.
Usually the delay lasts until a time when they feel that their parents will be able to cope with them and they explode. In many situations the reactions would be inform of bad behaviours and that way it would be easy to help a child overcome. (A.G2005)
Conclusion
Some of the existing laws should be changed to allow for a more comprehensive emergency response program. There should be a proper definition of what can be termed as a national disaster. As things stand today, the president was granted the powers to declare an incident a national disaster by the 1976 National Emergencies Act; however the only parameter to quantify this is the discretion of the president.
One change I recommend is that, the national government should have direct control on how disasters situations are handled, instead of waiting for the president; this would enhance swiftness a measure that can save lots of lives. This would enhance response programs since the national government has the capacity to pull a major disaster response irrespective of the disasterâs magnitude.
The programs should be tailored in a way that they are able to uphold the constitutional right to life, protection of property and security. This can be effectively achieved by addressing the root causes of the disaster and equipping the citizens with knowledge so that that they are able to cope with maximum resilience.
The whole issues of disaster should be managed in a way that all the three levels of government should have a department to handle any happenings, this would facilitate coordination since the set guidelines will be the same and hence irrespective of a disasters magnitude all rescuers and other humanitarian aid providers will be reading from the same script.
References
Australian Government. (2005). Myths of Human response in a Disaster. Web.
Banks, W. (2011). The legal landscape for emergency Management in the United states. Web.
Hewitt, K. (1983). The idea of calamity in a technocratic age: Interpretations of calamity. Web.
Linking Climate Adaptation. (2006). Reducing disaster Risk while Adapting to Climate. Web.
Maskrey, A. (1999). Reducing Global Disasters. Natural Disaster Management, Tudor Rose, Leicester, U.
Oakes, G. (1994). Imaginary war: Civil Defence and American Cold War Culture. Web.
Spana, M. (2005)Top 5 Disaster myths. University of Pittsburgh. Web.
Terry, C. (1994), Vulnerability Analysis and Natural Disasters. Varley Disasters, Development and Environment, Wiley, West Sussex, UK.
Waal, A.2006. An Imperfect Storm: Narratives of Calamity in a Liberal-Technocratic Age. Web.
Yodmani, S. 1999. Disaster risk Management and Vulnerability Reduction: Protecting the poor. Web.