Introduction
The legal union of marriage has decreased, with many resulting in divorce over the years. The evolution of legal divorces has made divorce more socially acceptable in society. No matter how acceptable divorce is becoming, the impact of dissolution often ends with unfavorable consequences for both individuals involved.
Studies have been conducted that suggest that these consequences may be experienced more by one gender than the other. This literature review will examine the history, causes, and mental and emotional effects of divorce with an emphasis on loneliness and depression. Gender differences relating to divorce will also be explored to determine if one gender experiences more depression or loneliness after the divorce than the other.
Literature Review
The rise in divorces may have been the most noticeable and harmful change to the family structure and society. Divorce is a complex process that requires adjusting to new identities, responsibilities, and relationships (Wilder, 2016). The divorce rates in various Western countries range between 25% and 33%. This means that somewhere between 1/3 and 1/4 of marriages end in divorce. This number has been the same for over 20 years (Oren & Hadomi, 2019).
The number of divorces continues to rise and, apparently, will continue to increase. The rate in the United States is even higher. Between 43% and 50% of initial marriages are expected to end in divorce (Anderson & Scherer, 2020). In 2009, there were 9.7 divorces for every 1,000 women in the United States. In 2019, there were 7.6 divorces for every 1,000 women (Anderson & Scherer, 2020). Demographers think nearly half of recent first marriages will end intentionally (Amato, 2000).
Observers have attributed this shift to several factors, including women’s increasing financial independence, a decline in men’s wages without advanced degrees, a growing desire for more from marriage, and a growing social acceptance of divorce (Amato, 2000). Problems that lead to divorce include financial difficulties, violence by one of the partners, and infidelity (Mohlatlole, Sithole, & Shirindi, 2018). The socio-economic status of women is being strengthened, and divorce, in general, is becoming more accessible (Hajdari & Erlule, 2018). Although divorce rates are decreasing, they remain relatively common. This means that the social sciences need to study divorce and its impact on men and women differently.
Divorce and gender differences have effects in other areas as well, such as health, mental disorders, and social interactions (Leopold, 2018). Resources can lessen mental and physical health stresses, the reason for the breakup, and demographic factors (Amato, 2000). Gender is a demographic trait that needs to be looked at more in the divorce literature because there isn’t a clear picture of how each gender’s social and mental health is affected by divorce (Bevvino & Sharkin, 2003).
The results of a global study on the differences and similarities in how men and women deal with divorce reveal significant variations (Amato, 2000). Several studies have found that women’s mental and/or physical health is worse after a divorce than that of men. Other studies, however, have found that men are worse off (Zulkarnain & Korenman, 2018). Recent research shows that divorce makes women feel more depressed than it makes men feel (Kalmijn & Monden, 2006).
The consequences of divorce on social bonds and mental health are so complex that there are still a lot of contradictions to be found (Kalmijn & Monden, 2006). So that these different ideas don’t get in the way, the goal of this study is to narrow the mental and social effects of divorce down to loneliness and depression. Gender will also be looked at as a variable in this study, because past research has shown that the effects of divorce are different for men and women.
Despite the availability of practical assessment tools, there are no studies examining the use of the UCLA and DASS scales to determine who is more affected by divorce. The UCLA and DASS scales are used to diagnose the effectiveness of therapy in treating depression symptoms in divorced men and women (Elphinstone, 2018; Farzanfar, Sedaghat, & Zarghami, 2020; Hoag, 2019).
Men tend to feel emotional difficulties due to separation from children (Bulut & Dagtas, 2022). Women face the difficulties of single parenthood and increased responsibility (Jenkinson, Matsuo, & Matthys, 2020). Men suffer more from loneliness because they rely more emotionally on a partner (Hognas, 2020). Women tend to develop long-term mental problems when a man experiences difficulties immediately after a divorce.
Defining and Understanding Divorce
Formally, divorce is defined as the dissolution of the marriage bonds between the people involved (Emery, 2013). Divorce is also known as the civil dissolution of a legally wedded couple (Amato & Anthony, 2014). In the past, divorce was primarily associated with the separation of two legally married individuals (Eyo, 2018). However, nowadays, divorce can describe the separation of persons in a relationship where cohabitation occurs (Eyo, 2018).
Often divorces gradually advance from a mental or psychological divorce between married individuals to a fully legal termination of marital unions (Ubaidi, 2017). Marriages resulting in divorce typically involve an initiator, who desires a divorce, and a non-initiator, who does not (Ubaidi, 2017). Whether one is an initiator or not, experiencing a dissolution of marriage can take a while to adjust to. Unlike a marriage, divorce isn’t praised by society and often has a negative stigma associated with it. Although it may be legal now, the divorce theory has struggled to evolve.
Causes
The most common causes of divorce, according to a study by Hawkins et al. (2012), were growing distant (55%), an inability to communicate (5%), and the way one’s spouse handled finances (40%). Open-ended questions about the grounds for divorce in a sample of divorced people conducted by Amato and Previti (2003) revealed that cheating (21.6 %), differences (19 %), and substance dependence were the most commonly stated reasons for divorce (10.6%).
Young couples get divorced much more often than people who have long lived in marriage. Among young couples, financial problems and harsh treatment of a partner are the reasons for divorce (Mohlatlole, Sithole, & Shirindi, 2018). The total number of divorces is increasing, for example, in small developing countries, as the level of education and the socio-economic position of women are improving (Hajdari & Erlule, 2018). Thus, the reasons may not only be related to the internal structure of the family.
Types
Spousal desertion happens when one partner departs the relationship without informing the other of their decision (Emery, 2013c). The left-behind partner learns about the desertion through the partner’s disappearance rather than through a conversation about quitting the relationship. Abandonment by a partner might result in financial issues for the left partner (Emery, 2013c). An absolute divorce is a judicial process that ends a marriage for good and gives up all the rights and benefits that come with being married. Both parties may remarry after a judge approves an absolute divorce (Emery, 2013a).
There are three key prerequisites for obtaining a divorce: residency specifications, a valid basis for divorce, and completing the necessary legal procedures (Daytec, 2015). A collaborative divorce offers a confidential and expedited approach to splitting up, encouraging spouses to settle their differences amicably (Retsinas & Zumpano, 2018). It also provides an organized procedure for guiding families through divorce without the need to go to court or hire attorneys to fight (Retsinas & Zumpano, 2018). In a cooperative divorce, both spouses have a collaborative divorce lawyer who argues for them, not with an “aggressive” or “win at any cost” mentality, but with a strategy that takes into account the desires, needs, and best interests of the entire family (Retsinas & Zumpano, 2018).
Effects
Couples, especially those who have been married for an extended period, build their lives around each other (Lampraki et al., 2019). Their lives revolve primarily around their friendships with other couples. Divorce alters the social dynamic of the spouse, their family, and even their extended family.
The consequent change in social networks contributes to the frequent sadness felt by divorcees (Lampraki et al., 2019). Particularly difficult may be coming to terms with and coping with divorce for individuals facing divorce. For instance, most of their lives were spent as husbands or wives. Additionally, finding a new spouse may become more challenging.
Divorce has long been recognized as one of the most stressful events that can occur in life. It has been linked to extreme stress and a decline in mental and physical health (Cipric et al., 2020). A recent Danish study found that divorcees feel more stress than their married, bereaved, and single counterparts (Cipric et al., 2020). This suggests that, even though the adverse effects of divorce, such as stress, may be subject to the “only time can heal” effect, in which stress levels decrease gradually over many years, life after divorce is still challenging for many people (Cipric et al., 2020).
Loneliness
One of the most common symptoms of loneliness is a feeling of sadness and dissatisfaction with the amount or quality of social contacts one has (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010). As a result of divorce, many people experience social isolation, which can have a detrimental effect on their health and even lead to their death (Lampraki et al., 2019). It’s common for people getting a divorce to feel isolated.
People who have been divorced are more likely than people who have been married for a long time to experience social isolation as a result of the disruptions that divorce brings to one’s social life (Lampraki et al., 2019). A wide range of health problems, from depressive episodes to an early death, can be linked to loneliness. As a result, figuring out what causes loneliness is critical (Lampraki et al., 2019).
The UCLA Loneliness Scale
The UCLA Loneliness Scale is one of the most widely used methods for assessing the level of loneliness a person experiences after a divorce. The most appropriate short form of the scale is a 10-point questionnaire with questions on the overall level of loneliness (Elphinstone, 2018). UCLA Loneliness Scales are widely used to test women after divorce and identify indicators of supportive therapy (Farzanfar, Sedaghat, & Zarghami, 2020). Since divorce is a significant change in social status, it can cause feelings of loneliness, which a specialist should diagnose.
Divorced Women and Loneliness
Divorce is related to loneliness amongst women, according to a study. Women were affected more than males (Woodward et al., 1981). Women experienced thoughts of loneliness when they perceived money as a restricting factor, and when they had specific duties to complete and felt they had no one with whom to share the responsibility (Woodward et al., 1981).
Divorced and remarried individuals will experience a higher level of social and emotional loneliness compared to the permanently married. Women in social life rely not only on a partner but also on family and friends, so the level of loneliness may be lower than that of men (Hognas, 2020). However, a married woman often cares for the house and children; she may be socially isolated during divorce.
Divorced Men and Loneliness
During a marriage, a man emotionally relies on a woman, feeling the need for mental support. The emotional state of a divorced man is affected by separation from children, which is why the level of loneliness may be higher (Bulut & Dagtas, 2022). Divorced men experience economic difficulties and are emotionally more separated from their families, which increases the feeling of loneliness (Hognas, 2020). A change in the social status of a divorced man dramatically affects his emotional well-being.
Depression
Depression is among the few diseases known collectively as affective disorders, which relate to the manifestations of disturbed affect or mood as a distinguishing trait (Hammen & Watkins, 2018). As a result, depression, melancholy, feeling gloomy, lonely, and sad, or feeling lifeless are common. However, irritation is sometimes the most visible mood (Hammen & Watkins, 2018).
Furthermore, not all depressed people exhibit signs of melancholy or despair. Instead, they may describe a lack of pleasure, a sense of lethargy, or apathy (Hammen & Watkins, 2018). As shown in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), the presence of five or more symptoms throughout two weeks is required for the diagnosis of a Major Depression Episode (MDE) (Tolentino & Schmidt, 2018).
At a minimum, one of the symptoms should be a sad mood or a decreased interest or pleasure in daily life activities (Tolentino & Schmidt, 2018). Additional symptoms of MDE include changes in appetite or weight, sleep problems (sleeplessness or oversleeping), irritability, weariness, impaired capacity to think or focus, feelings of inadequacy, and suicide ideation (Tolentino & Schmidt, 2018). These symptoms are evaluated as all or nothing (0 or 1) (Tolentino & Schmidt, 2018).
The DASS scale
The DASS scale is a suitable tool for measuring the level of depression, anxiety, and stress experienced by the interviewee. The respondent evaluates based on 21 statements, which may or may not be relevant (Hoag, 2019). Higher scores indicate greater severity of symptoms and distress. The subjects’ anxiety is associated with the uncertainty of life after divorce (Hoag, 2019). The DASS scale demonstrates the effectiveness of therapy among women faced with developing depressive symptoms during and after divorce.
Divorced Women and Depression
In a recent study, it was found that divorce has a greater impact on women’s depression than on men’s depression (Kalmijn & Monden, 2006). Women tend to develop depression after divorce, and, in the long term, men suffer more from deterioration of physical health (Jenkinson, Matsuo, & Matthys, 2020). High risks of depression in women are associated with single parenting and increased responsibility for children. Single parenthood has been associated with a higher likelihood of illness and depression in women in the post-divorce period and later in life (Jenkinson, Matsuo, & Matthys, 2020). Given that women are less likely to remarry, the risks of depression are higher.
Divorced Men and Depression
According to studies, men get greater health benefits from marriage, which increases their risk of health decreases and death after divorce (Leopold, 2018). In keeping with this notion, a more recent study done by Andress and Brockel (2007) revealed that life satisfaction was worse among divorced males and that mortality increased only among men following divorce. Other research has found that marital discord is connected with higher rates of major depression prevalence for both men and women. Yet, only males had a greater risk of the first-onset clinical depression (Leopold, 2018).
Depression in divorced men tends to develop due to problems in relationships with their children. Divorced fathers are more prone to depression than married fathers and fathers who can get custody (Bulut & Dagtas, 2022). Separation from children and a sense of guilt and increased responsibility lead to the disease’s development. Additionally, a divorced man may worry about the quality of life his children will have with his ex-wife’s new partner. This feeling of guilt causes longing, sadness, anxiety, loneliness, and depression.
Discussion
Studies have indicated that men are more likely to remarry after a divorce than women, which lowers their susceptibility to the feeling of loneliness substantially (Leopold, 2018). However, other studies show that women are supported more emotionally and sociably during the divorce process than their male counterparts. This contributes to the psychological effect of divorce in males, such as depression (Woodward et al., 1981).
The main diagnostic tools for loneliness and depression are the UCLA and DASS scales. However, there is no research with comparative conclusions drawn from these scales, making it impossible to provide an accurate answer to who suffers the most. Both sides suffer emotionally and physically from the consequences of divorce. Divorced adults have higher levels of depression, anxiety, and addiction. Compared to men, women are experiencing more significant economic problems.
Most men began to suffer from economic issues due to problems with alimony (Bulut & Dagtaş, 2022). Most likely, men suffer more from loneliness after a divorce because they are used to relying emotionally on a marriage partner (Hognas, 2020). However, women are more likely to be prone to depression in the long term due to the deterioration of the socio-economic situation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I have contended that divorce has been found to impact men and women differently. Experiencing divorce can be mentally and emotionally draining for everyone involved. My study has demonstrated the different effects of divorce on gender, specifically related to the feelings of loneliness and depression.
Research shows that men are more likely to feel lonely after a divorce. Women, in turn, tend to develop long-term mental problems, such as depression. Men tend to feel guilty because of abandoned children, and a woman experiences anxiety because of increased responsibility. Economically and socially, divorce negatively impacts both genders, leading to the development of severe mental difficulties.
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