Introduction
In public health, health disparities have long been a problem that has to be addressed. Despite efforts to rectify these discrepancies, a wide range of research databases indicates that health disproportions still exist. Healthy lifestyles are always a significant factor in maintaining these disparities and have drawn more attention recently. Therefore, it is paramount to examine the concept of healthy lifestyles and the reproduction of inequalities, as well as their relationship with social policy and public health.
The Research Question
The primary research question addressed in this paper is: “How do individual health lifestyles contribute to the reproduction of health inequalities?” The research will conduct a literature review to gain further insight into the connection between healthy lifestyles and health inequalities, thereby addressing this topic.
Literature Review
The complex link between healthy lifestyles and health disparities has been the subject of research. These research pieces have yielded several important conclusions regarding social determinants and health-related behaviors. Different studies have indicated that social determinants of health, such as socioeconomic class, education, and race, have a noteworthy impact on health behaviors, including food, exercise, smoking, and alcohol use. For example, individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds can face numerous disadvantages. These individuals may lack the funds to access safe places to exercise, healthcare facilities, or buy required/ nutritious food, which could contribute to their making unhealthy lifestyle choices.
Zanobini et al. (2021) support this statement by holding “Health Literacy (HL) is one of the main determinants of health and is crucial for the prevention of noncommunicable diseases” (p. 1). Unhealthy behaviors were linked to low HL, which is greatly impacted by sociodemographic variables. According to Zanobini et al. (2021), having insufficient HL was a predictor of eating fewer than three servings of fruits and vegetables each day, as well as not getting enough exercise in their free time. This implies that people’s health habits can be significantly influenced by the socioeconomic factors associated with HL, such as low educational attainment. Low education often meant eating unhealthy foods, leading to an unbalanced diet, or consuming too little or too much.
Other researchers continued to examine this topic from an obesity perspective. Obesity results from a combination of metabolic, psychological, social, and hereditary factors. Cockerham (2022) confirms that “behavioral practices people adopt that affect their weight and other aspects of their health, either positively or negatively. These practices include eating habits, smoking, drinking, exercising…” (p. s11). This quote lends support to the theory that social determinants are a significant contributor to the development of obesity. It signifies that variables, including inequality, lifestyle decisions, and socioeconomic position, can influence a person’s risk of being obese.
Vilar-Compte et al. (2021) expound that people’s ability to maintain a healthy diet might be impacted by poverty following excessive spending on smoking and drinking addiction. Access to nutritious food can be severely limited by urban poverty in ways comparable to those in rural regions. Budgetary constraints, for instance, can make urban residents consume diets extremely low in animal protein or alter their demands if they belong to a group with specific nutritional needs.
Nonetheless, other authors delved deeper into research on factors beyond habits and poverty. Cockerham (2022) outlines that “Health Lifestyle Theory (HLT) maintains 3 categories of structural variables (1) class circumstances; (2) age, gender, and race/ethnicity; (3) collectivities …” (p. s11). By impacting conventions, attitudes, and material resources that equate people with those in similar socioeconomic situations, race and ethnicity can easily influence health habits. According to the HLT, Cockerham (2022) notes that one’s diet-related beliefs, food choices, eating habits, and exercise may all be directly influenced by social class membership, which is often linked to race.
Cockerham found that health behaviors and the risk of cardiovascular disease varied by race, with Blacks more likely than Whites to consume excessive amounts of calories. One reason for blacks taking more calories was connected to neighborhood reasons. An increased risk of obesity was linked to neighborhoods with larger percentages of Black individuals (Cockerham, 2022). These communities may be more likely to have access to unhealthy food alternatives and limited opportunities for nourishing food sources, which can lead to excessive calorie intake.
The Paper’s Contribution
Several elements in this topic have been discussed, and therefore, this research will focus on the rare or unexplored components, mainly intersectionality and behavior change.
Intersectionality
The first portion that has not been researched in depth is intersectionality; the research will establish some clarity in the mentioned section. The paper will examine how disparities in age and gender interact to influence people’s health-related behaviors. Previous scholars have not investigated safer methods for providing nutrients to older individuals who can no longer chew hard foods, nor have they explored how gender influences health in specific communities.
Age
Developing focused treatments requires an understanding of the intersectional nature of health inequities. Mollborn et al. (2020) observed that “This perspective would expect gender and age to intersect in shaping health lifestyles. Gender disparities should emerge, change, or even reverse as people age…” (p. 7). Studying the transition into old age is crucial due to the demographic density of this stage of life. They include regular, often recurring changes in migration, fertility, marriage, education, and paid employment, as well as sudden changes in behaviors or social surroundings.
Furthermore, following the onset of old age-related weakness, these individuals may find some of these foods difficult to consume. Rungraung et al. (2020) outlined that “Tooth loss has been related to a lower intake of hard-to-chew foods, such as raw vegetables, unripe fruits, well-done meats, and crusty breads…” (p. 1). Fresh vegetables are always nutritious, and failing to include them in one’s diet can be detrimental to overall health, leading to malnourishment and potential health issues.
Since they contain both high-biological-value proteins and macronutrients, as well as micronutrients such as group B vitamins and minerals, along with other bioactive substances, meat and its derived products are generally considered healthy dietary options. Moreover, Arumugam et al. (2021) asserted that carrots contain beta-carotene and lutein, which help maintain eye health and protect against sun damage, as well as lower the risk of cataracts. Arumugam and his fellows note that lycopene in red carrots may prevent heart disease, and a Vitamin A deficiency can lead to photoreceptor deterioration.
Due to weak teeth, older individuals may find chewing raw carrots challenging, which can increase their vulnerability to heart ailments, eye problems, and other chronic conditions. Ahmed et al. (2022) further clarified that when the body does not receive sufficient amounts of specific key nutrients, such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals, it can lead to malnutrition, which is a serious health concern. Ahmed and his colleagues add that malnutrition is equally linked to inadequate intake of the necessary food, some chronic illnesses like cancer and gastrointestinal system disorders, and occasionally difficulties following surgery. Ahmed et al. (2022) suggest that the potential pro-oxidant qualities of polyphenol compounds are predicated on the direct synthesis of labile aroxil complexes, which are absorbed through food or supplementation, thereby protecting against infection. By saying that, the authors advocate for the use of supplements as a way of boosting the body’s immunity.
In this way, the remaining two methods for providing nutrients to the bodies of aged individuals are supplementation and liquid foods. Ahmed et al. (2022) confirmed that “vitamin C supplements can boost the immune system…. In adults, the requirement for vitamin C is 75− 90 mg per day” (p. 4). However, these supplements have side effects on the human body and are not the best way to introduce nutrients to the body.
Awuchi et al. (2020) explain that the absorption or use of another mineral salt may be negatively impacted by a large intake of one. Although consuming too much food on its own is unlikely, taking supplements or eating foods that have been fortified raises the possibility of toxicity. Based on Awuchi and fellows’ information, it is clear that supplements can be toxic to the human body. Therefore, the only safe way to provide nutrients to older adults who can not chew hard foods is by blending and offering the food in liquid form.
Gender
Gender is another factor that affects health lifestyle, yet it is not well researched. Mollborn et al. (2020) published that “First, healthy lifestyles are expected to be distinguishable by gender…” (p. 7). In this paragraph, Mollborn and colleagues confirm that there are both similarities and variations within each gender, and that gender significantly influences health habits. Likewise, gender norms can influence health-related behaviors by imposing social roles and expectations. For instance, men’s general well-being may be negatively impacted by conventional masculine standards that discourage them from seeking mental health treatment.
Faraj (2022) expounds that by using the Middle East’s case, “Emotions seem to be gender-based in patriarchal society; crying is one of the emotions that are viewed as ‘weak’ or something ‘only girls do’” (p. 63). From this perspective, it can be concluded that some cultures prohibit males from crying and expect such behavior only from females.
Generally, humans can benefit psychologically from crying, as it can serve as a therapeutic outlet for emotions, reduce stress, and foster relaxation and overall well-being by easing emotional tension. Bylsma et al. (2021) affirm that in the context of a therapy session, emotional expression such as crying is highly valued as a cathartic experience that involves a healthy release of tension. This publication by Bylsma and colleagues is a long-standing value of psychoanalytic and psychodynamic therapeutic orientations. Mahalik and Di Bianca (2021) state that “men are more likely to reject help-seeking because they gain privilege and power by rejecting help as a way to assert masculinity” (p. 146). Mahalik and Di Bianca continue that rejecting help-seeking, for instance, is seen under the Precarious Manhood Model (PMM) as a means of strengthening male status. PMM follows the experience of a danger to such a status as being viewed as weak for going through depression.
Nonetheless, in particular, the model suggests that men’s hesitation to seek treatment for depression is a way of coping with the challenge to their male identity because depression and sadness are generally associated with femininity. On the other hand, Zohuri and Zadeh (2020) report that prolonged mood disorders can increase the risk of depression and suicidal thoughts, which led to more than 47,000 deaths in 2017. From the analysis, it is therefore clear that gender is closely tied to cultural norms, which can hurt males. This can be connected to Sá et al. (2020), who published an increase in suicide rates in Fortaleza between 2000 and 2009, with 80% being male cases, resulting in a 4.3 correspondence of male-to-female suicide rates. Depression formed some of these suicides; therefore, communities should stop viewing seeking mental help among males as a weakness, but as being more health-conscious.
Behavior Change
The second portion that has not been researched is the behavior change strategies for better health. This paper does not overlook the success of behavior modification programs in various cultural and socioeconomic settings. Identifying effective strategies that benefit disadvantaged groups can lead to more equitable health outcomes by introducing programs such as incentives, empowerment, and social support provision. Incentivization can incorporate tactics that provide rewards or inducements to adopt better lifestyles, including gifting individuals or institutions for reaching predetermined health objectives. This can be done by introducing such systems from the leadership level to the individual level.
Kakunje et al. (2020) observed that healthcare workers and institutions are motivated by special rewards and recognitions and that incentives can motivate their efforts in ensuring a healthy population. Health professionals who are highly motivated and well-paid are more likely to prioritize high-quality care, early identification, and prevention, all of which lower the frequency and severity of medical disorders. When healthcare facilities are given reward-based goals, such as the institution with the best records in handling cases of rampant depression, they will then offer community- and patient-centered services.
Through such programs, the institutions will create and encourage people with depression challenges to register with them. Upon registering with these hospitals, they will work diligently to ensure positive results for their clients, generating good reviews that qualify them for rewards. In this manner, they can set mini-goals for their patient dealing with depression for faster healing. In this process, institutions will similarly establish their own reward systems to recognize and appreciate individuals who heal quickly.
Van den Brand et al. (2021) hold that “…rewards for quitting smoking and enjoy receiving the rewards, which may contribute to a positive attitude toward quitting smoking…” (p. 100). In practicing the reward system, males will not cry but will find a place to reach out for help without being judged, and this will create a conducive atmosphere for them to express themselves. Similarly, depressed individuals will be competing for quick recovery gifts, which will end up changing and bettering their behaviors and community norms to favor males’ public discomfort expression.
Empowerment and social support are also key factors that facilitate behavioral change. Álvaro et al. (2019) reported that men experienced depression following unemployment issues. Providing such individuals with jobs will change their depression-oriented behaviors, thus enabling them to live like others in society.
Conversely, social support is more about making it normal for men to cry or express their discomfort publicly. Such support can equally be implemented by reporting any suspected individuals who are facing depression to relevant healthcare programs before it gets worse. More research can be conducted on the relationship between gender, age, and health inequalities than is presented in this paper.
Summary
In conclusion, the research question addressed is how personal health lifestyles affect the perpetuation of health disparities. By building on prior research, it clarifies the intersectional nature of these disparities, their consequences for community norms, and methods for changing behavior. Through a deeper understanding of the complex relationship between health behaviors and health inequalities, society can strive towards more equitable health outcomes and a stronger community.
References
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