History of Globalization: Past and Present Research Paper

Introduction

When discussing the critique of globalization, literature tends to analyze its perceived consequences. the emergence of a so-called ‘global culture’ is simply a process that marks the transformation to a culture of consumption and linked to the First World economies, creating new forms of colonial control in the so-called ‘postcolonial’ era; therefore suggesting that globalization is in fact new ‘global colonialism’ (p683). In terms of managing diversity one would argue that this argument lends itself toward later arguments for and against the ethnocentric or parochial approach.

The first settlements and colonization

In the USA, the history of globalization goes back to the first colonization and first settlements and is closely connected with names of Amerigo Vespucci and Christopher Columbus. Even before the ‘discovery’ of the phenomenon of globalization and a global culture, the issue of convergence versus divergence in management practices has been researched;. It would appear from the previous arguments of globalization, that globalization itself is a convergence theory (Galbraith, 2002). An older argument as to the distinction between the two trends lay in the existence of similarities between macro-level variables and micro-level variables, with the latter referring to culturally based similarities and the former referring to environmental factors. However, more recently research has gained more momentum, with a renewed notion of the ‘one best way’ of cross cultural management perspective being stronger today (Bhagwati, 2001).

The end of the 16^th century was a period of French and British colonization. The aim of colonization was occupation of new lands and new ways of wealth accumulation for France and Britain. The colonists exterminated Native Americans and exploited their natural and human resources. European immigrants over the past century and racial minorities face opposite cultural problems. The new Europeans were seen as not “American” enough, and they were pressured to give up their strange and threatening ways and to assimilate. Although it might have taken several generations, the offspring that were successful in this process could usually expect to become accepted citizens. African Americans, Asian Americans, and Latino Americans were second-class Americans. They were seldom welcomed and were told to “stay in your place” and were not allowed into the mainstream culture of the privileged, even when “fully acculturated.” The beginning of 18^th century was marked by contradictions between Britain and the US and rejection of the merchants and the state to pay taxes to the British Crown. Further the Monroe doctrines prohibited colonization of America by European nations. Capitalist relations shaped national identity and determine relations between men. For instance, no man had a right to vote if he was not wealthy enough (Bhagwati, 2001).

The 19^th century and globalization

Western European cultures, which formed the fabric of the United States of America, are relatively homogeneous when compared not only with the rest of the world but also with the increasing diversity in this country. This Euro-American worldview continues to form the foundations of educational, social, economic, cultural, and political systems. Capitalist modes of production and labor relations determined national identity and legalized wealth accumulation and exploitation of low social classes. Americans must realize that they benefit not only from the many proud accomplishments of their ancestors but also from their shameful acts (Easterly, 2001).

The 20^th century and growth opportunities

The 20^th century has a great impact on the world transforming social, political, cultural and economic spheres of life. Innovations in transportation have been complemented by the swift development of communication technologies. The 20th-century arrival of mass circulation newspapers and magazines, film, and television further enhanced a growing consciousness of a rapidly shrinking world. Globalization transforms economic system of the world brining new opportunities to less developed countries; it changes cultural and political spheres popularizing democratic values and principles and promulgating western style of life. Globalization in media sphere is influenced by changes in political and cultural spheres brining new economic opportunities and financial capitals to media giants. These needs lead to digitalization, consolidation and deregulation of media environment around the globe (MacGillivray, 2005).

The 20^th century marked a new era in globalizations based on new technologies and increased power of the US state. One can observe that regardless of the specific terms used within the definitions offered, globalization generally appears to be regarded as a process, it is not happening in an instant, but it can creep up unannounced. However, with some referring to it as internationalization or globalization, and some arguments surrounding globalization mentioning both the economics, and HRM this research paper will refer to the process as globalization in the context of people management (Zinn, 2005).

This argument appears to suggest that organization will opt to ignore cultural influences in favor of universal methods in order to remain competitive, suggesting an element of choice in the acknowledgement of culture, hinting at a degree of choice in management approach. The convergence hypothesis in updated research appears to centre on the argument that the common requirements of management disregard the importance of cultural differences thus confirming the significance of the MNC in as much as it is viewed as the vehicle by which dominant HR policies and practices are transported across national boundaries. This suggests that convergence is being driven by powerful MNCs which set the agenda in certain sectors, with his reference to McDonalds (Zinn, 2005).

One of the major features of the internationalization process is the emergence of multinational business networks, within and between companies, as Multinational Corporations (MNCs) extend their activities abroad. The term ‘globalization’ has emerged with the spread of such networks. A global company is one that seeks to define and optimize its strategy in a worldwide market. Alongside this, it is taken for granted that the world is increasingly becoming a ‘global village’ where national cultures and boundaries are dissolving. Discussions surrounding globalization invariably encourage argument, debate, disagreement and, more recently, violence as witnessed by demonstrations at World Trade Organization gatherings. Indeed, the exact meaning and significance of the term, along with its intellectual ownership, are contested areas of interest and when seeking an explicit definition of globalization one finds a variety of interpretations (Zinn, 2005).

Modern Situation

There is argued to be evidence of divergent trends when comparing Eastern and Western management, for example found in their study which observed Western individualistic cultures, (Britain and the USA) and Asian collectivist cultures (Japan and Hong Kong) where much greater pressure to perform is placed on subordinates in the West than in the East. One has shown how the culture is argued to present itself in management, and how complex an issue it is. Therefore, one questions the consequences for cultural practices when two cultures collide. The convergence arguments suggest that there is the beginning of a ‘global’ model, whilst the divergence arguments present the idea that this is not the case due to resistance from national cultures. With an increase in multinationals investing in the USA, and bringing with them home-grown people management techniques and opinions, FDI could perhaps be an instrument to promote converging techniques; however, one has also demonstrated the strength of the culture which is deeply-rooted in beliefs highlighting the significance of national culture within the divergence arguments (Bhagwati, 2001).

Conclusion

In sum, the information mentioned above shows that globalization processes in the USA are crucial for success and a strong position of the nation in the global economy. Globalization involves the transfer of resources from the colonized global South in exchange for European manufactures. Developed nations spread their political system and cultural values across the globe. Like all social processes, globalization contains dimension filled with a range of norms, claims, beliefs, and narratives about the phenomenon itself. However, it is not just rational economics that drive this selection: it helps that media organizations tend to be staffed by highly trained people with an interest in new technologies, people who have been selected to embrace and develop new ideas. Of all the functions in a media organization, this is the one that should show the most natural inclination to embrace the new ideas of working within the alliances can all be effective ways to improve the competitive position of an overall firm. However, any one of these processes must be an integral part of an ongoing corporate strategic plan. In addition, the evaluation process must shift its emphasis away from traditional financial performance criteria toward overall competitive dynamics.

References

Bhagwati, J. (2001). In Defense of Globalization. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Easterly, W. (2001). The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics. Cambridge, MA, The MIT Press.

Galbraith, J. (2002). American Capitalism: The Concept of Countervailing Power. Transaction Publishers; New Ed edition.

MacGillivray, A. (2005). Globalization. Carroll & Graf.

O’Brien, R., Goetze, A., Scholte, J., Williams, M., Helleiner, E. (2000). Contesting Global Governance: Multilateral Economic Institutions and Global Social Movements Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zinn, H. (2005). People’s History of the United States: 1492 to Present. Harper Perennial Modern Classics.