International Advertising and Its Aspects Research Paper

Abstract

Today is the world of science and technology. Extensive human probing in the space domains, technological inventions such as cable TV and the Internet have changed the entire course of things in the way it was never witnessed before. Today the pace with which the body of knowledge is expanding is enormous. The flow of information is one thing that is regarded as the most important aspect to survive in today’s world, whichever walk of life it may be. As such, advertising has come to dominate the business and consumer markets with a heavy blow. Today, development in the advertising industry has also gone manifold with a number of media, both traditional and digital, contributing significantly to a firm’s market share, its reputation, as well as the growth aspects for the very firm in the future.

As such, the attention of the professionals and scholars has shifted to focus on the specific functionality of advertising. Today, it is not merely displaying the items for sales in the window; indeed, it is a state-of-the-art field that requires highly trained professionals with necessary logistics. In the twenty-first century, when the world has shrunk into a global village, the norms of advertising have become international mainly due to business firms spanning their products across the globe. In this way, the term international advertising has emerged widely in the advertising literature.

If the trends in the area of international advertising have helped boost profitability, there are certain issues related to this very trend. Cross-cultural, linguistic, ethnic issues have been given great concern in this very domain. Henceforth, the present paper reviews extensive literature to investigate the recent several aspects and issues confronted by international advertising. It begins by tracing the history, definition, and other basic concepts of international advertising. In the later section, the present study undertakes to examine issues and challenges present in this very domain critically.

International Advertising

Definition

The idea of international advertising has acquired considerable attention. In this section, the present writer critically examines various aspects of international advertising, starting from its commonly known definition.

In the advertising literature, international advertising is defined as the dissemination of a message made for some target audience for business purposes, and the target audience is spread over a number of countries. As such, the role of international advertising is highly challenging given the fact that the different audiences in different countries have varied languages, cultures, values, norms, and so forth. In this way, the functioning of advertising in each country is likely to differ in nature as well as operation.

Another aspect of this definition is that international advertising, while targeting specific audiences, also performs commercial activities which bring together the advertisers and other advertising agencies which may create, produce, and sell commercial media according to the demands of a country or a cultural aspect of a country (stern.nyu.edu). One such internationally renowned effort was the one done by Thomas Ashwell, as farther back in the past as 1938, to carve up the starting lines for the upcoming trends of international advertising. Thomas Ashwell was a publisher of the Export Trade & Shipper magazine in New York. This mad, we can fairly aver, had the foresight for the future.

So he arranged a meeting of twelve executives from an advertising background and formed the International Advertising Association, which is a remarkable milestone viewed in the context of the long years this organization has stood against. However, it was the 1950s that can be truly said to be the hallmark for this association that won it the credit for international repute and standard and “By the time it celebrated its 20th anniversary in 1958, it had 1,160 members, of which over 600 came from outside the US, representing a total of 58 countries” (Iaaglobal.org).

International Advertising and Communication Limitations

Communicating a product, its value to a specific set of the target audience of a particular country is another issue of great importance. The reason for this is that at this level communication process for advertising a product becomes all the more complex due to such factors as different languages, the literacy level of a people, and other such cultural issues. Another issue while communicating across cultures is the choice of different media.

It is considered that different media carry different effects for the same product and may aim for different audiences. Additionally, the limitations of choosing media are a great issue in the international domain of advertising. It is more likely to happen that communication breakdowns occur with the same advertisement in another area simply because the people were unable to grasp the meaning of the commercial (one factor may be low literacy rate in that very region or country).

The process of communication for international audiences necessitates a number of prerequisites to be undertaken for an effective advertising campaign. First of all, an appropriate message is determined by an advertiser for a particular audience. Secondly, the message is encoded “so that it will be clearly understood in different cultural contexts. The message is then sent through media channels to the audience who then decodes and reacts to the message”. At each of the listed steps, it is possible that cultural factors come into play to mar the effectiveness of the message, which must be carefully monitored before any harm to the reputation or product can take place (stern.nyu.edu).

Here, one example of this step-by-step process can be best prevented by the review of the empirical study that author Mccullough (1993). The author empirically “investigates the frequency of leisure themes in international advertising using a cross-cultural content analysis of print and billboard advertisements” (p. 380). In this study, the author strikes on the subjective properties of leisure which can be fairly targeted for advertising. The author lists six such properties that can further divide the phenomenon of leisure. These are

1. intrinsic satisfaction;
2. perceived freedom;
3. arousal;
4. mastery;
5. involvement of the viewer; and
6. spontaneity on the part of the commercial being planned for a specific set of audience.

The author then draws the data for this study from a large sample of 524 advertising samples to investigate the effectiveness of this hypothesis. He carries on a very solid and painstaking analysis of the samples, which tells us of the complexities that may arise in planning an advertisement for international brands and products. There are different dimensions that are found in different countries and cross-culturally even within the same country at varied rates.

However, at least any one of the six above-mentioned elements of leisure is found in all the samples of the study for international advertising. There were found differences in the application of all the six elements of leisure. This arouses more complexity of communication which, according to the author, requires further empirical investigation so that more probing can be done to execute more effective communication via international advertisement. The author reports such differences apparent in the samples obtained from countries like the US, the UK, Canada, Japan, and Germany (Mccullough, p. 380, 1993).

This empirical study of only the one psychological aspect, leisure, very easily informs us of the complexities present in the planning of international advertising campaigns. And we may fairly make a remark that if the element of studying different elements, both psychological and cultural, are not taken into serious consideration, there is no fair saying that an international advertising campaign may not meet its desired goals causing damage to the product, brand, or reputation of a specific business organization.

International Advertising Industry

Today, international advertising has become a giant industry that comprises a number of small, medium-sized, and large advertising business firms and agencies. The small and medium-sized advertising agencies generally operate in one country but are joined or associated with the large firms that operate internationally in terms of expertise, logistics, and capital. These agencies have international office networks that enable client-based communication.

The networks include both the associated local agencies and subsidiary agencies of the large firms. Presently, huge-budget clients such as IBM and Citibank consolidate with only one but big advertising organization so that greater grip over international brand advertising of their product can be obtained. “Of the ten largest advertising agency groups, seven are headquartered in the US,” which tells us that the rally of international advertising is headed by the United States of America (stern.nyu.edu).

Cultural Implication and International Advertising

When it comes to the investigation of the practices and functions of international advertising, it is of sublime importance that the element of cross-cultural effects on international advertising campaigns be discussed because this is one single factor that is at play throughout the advertising business.

The present author reviewed a number of articles about cross-cultural differences in the field of international advertising and would discuss major studies to highlight the theme of culture in advertising. Nelson and Paek (2005), in their study “Cross-Cultural Differences in Sexual Advertising Content in a Transnational Women’s Magazine,” chase the effect of sexual advertising in different cultures and investigate the common opinions about these advertisements with regard to positive and negative feedback.

The study examines one of the largest sold international women’s magazines: Cosmopolitan, by comparing its advertising in seven countries, i.e., Brazil, China, France, India, South Korea: Korea hereafter, Thailand, the US All of these countries were chosen because they are all different in terms of geography, socio-political systems, and cultures. This very study has a great deal to inform us with respect to the cultural differences.

When asked about nudity in the advertisement, people from different countries held different opinions. For instance, some people in the US said that they do not like advertisements that give way to sexy themes and that they would like to boycott such advertisements. What is surprising is that in countries Denmark, Germany, Italy, and France (the continental European countries), “consumers generally do not have a problem with nudity in advertisements” (p. 371). In France, women regard nudity exposed by female models as being an element of aesthetic sense rather than an element of sexism. However, what is equally important to note is the attitude that Asian and Middle Eastern countries hold for such advertisements: they are more conservative in this area than countries like the US or France.

If we critically examine what has been investigated in the concerned study regarding cultural differences across various nations, there is no doubt that the element of culture emerges as a single force that can decide or doom a product’s success however good quality the product itself holds. Cultural differences, as such, pertain to that an advertisement created for one set of people in a specific culture cannot be said to be equally effective in people belonging to a different culture. Thus, there is a great requisition to plan a brand advertisement for an international audience carefully, and the element of culture must be given due attention to eliminating cross-cultural miscommunication or communication breakdowns.

Moving along the same line of concern with respect to cultural impact on international advertising, the present writer deems it necessary to mention another study. Hoeken et al. (2003), in their experimental study of European countries, investigated the “cultural differences with respect to the persuasiveness of value appeals in a number of European countries” to “make a valuable contribution to our understanding of international advertising” (p. 195).

For this very study, they narrowed down the research goal to avoidance of uncertainty. The samples of this study were chosen students from the humanity department: “142 participants from Belgium, 125 from France, 108 from Spain, and 101 from the Netherlands” (p. 195). They undertook various technical procedures for this research, for example, a number of control and open-ended questions probing the issues of the sampled population’s attitudes toward the advertised products. They analyzed the data by applying highly technical instruments such as semantic differentials.

The result of the study shows that there were significantly notable differences when the cross-national analysis was done; the “Participants from different countries differed with respect to the extent to which they regarded the advertisement as a typical advertisement for a watch and as a typical advertisement for their country” (p. 195). In addition to these differences, the participants also gave way to the differences in terms of the degree to which they “considered a watch as a purely functional product, as a piece of jewelry and as an image-enhancing product” (p. 195). Moving along with analysis of the finding of the study, the authors inform us that the data revealed that no specific patterns could be found to trace the origin or root cause for these differences among these varied nationals.

In the last section of the discussion, the authors take into consideration almost all the possible implications of the study. They inform the reader that the study is very useful for standardization-adaptation field literature of advertising. The reason is that before this study, there was not a single study that was so highly focusing on the element of uncertainty avoidance and that previous studies have “focused on only one dimension (individualism-collectivism) and on only one set of countries (the US versus Asian countries).” Besides, the outcomes of these studies showed that the results of these studies might be restricted to the specific countries in which they were conducted, and they did not reveal much “advertising appeal interactions” (p. 195).

AS such, the study holds solid evidence for business firms that aim to advertise their products in these and other countries in that there are certain differences toward phenomena like uncertainty avoidance in all these sampled countries. Any firm that does not take notice of these cultural differences may have to suffer hardships with regard to communication breakdowns, complexities, and controversies in their advertisement campaigns, and lastly, communication failures cannot be overlooked as being happened by chance.

Cultural Differences and New Paradigms of Media Coverage

With respect to cultural differences across nations, a case study is highly worth mentioning due to the fact that it reveals the changing paradigm in the global war of media coverage, which is most likely –according to the analysis of the report with which the present writer completely stand in agreement with– to expand in the times to come. One such piece of evidence is found in the research study by Orayb Najjar, “New Trends in Global Broadcasting:

“Nuestro Norte es el Sur” (Our North is the South)”. This study extensively investigates the influences that media coverage group holds in international means of communication such as TV, radio, and the Internet. The author chases the reasons for the remarkable success of Al Jazeera TV not only with the Arab region but also in other regions like Africa and the Sub-Continent.

According to this investigation, Al Jazeera TV has recently gained so much success and popularity due to its dynamic strategies of covering news and event that the giants rivals (CNN and BBC) have undergone high hindrances on behalf of the concerned TV channel. This gives rise to a new trend of national media with international media. That is to say, more and more awareness is holding ground among people who are opting to give as much importance to local media as they might not give to international groups. According to the author, “The dissatisfaction with Western news sources has a long history and dates back at least to the ear of the primacy of Western news agencies on the world news scene” (Najjar, n.p., 2007).

The more important thing that this very study brings into attention is that the rise of the Al Jazeera TV channel is due to cultural differences that are going to affect more profoundly in the days to come because of the fact that this TV channel is gaining popularity. As such, the future holds a very different paradigm in advertising for business, and business firms must take it into serious consideration due to this very reason.

Al Jazeera TV has gained horribly high popularity, which has scared such countries as the United States of America, which has started to adopt a number of procedures from boycotting the channel; poaching the employees from the TV channel; starting the Al-Hurra TV competitor; to funding rival channels in Iraq. “The US government is also aggressively spreading its message through its Public Diplomacy staff at the State Department” (Najjar, n.p., 2007).

This all tells the present common human inference of the advertising environment getting more and more complicated in the days to come, around the globe. This also necessitates the fact, according to the personal analysis of the present writer, that newer paradigms in international advertising are needed; the paradigms should be such as to local the minor and major differences in cultures, religions, and national interests of the people an advertising agency is aiming to target for some product publicity.

If such security measures are not taken beforehand – and it’s high time that they were taken now—there is no surety that the business of international advertising will go on improving. According to the analysis of the success of the Al Jazeera TV channel, what can be easily inferred is that trends in advertising will certainly evolve a dramatic change which will need high expertise to face challenges in the field. However, with so much that has come to happen already, it is not surprising to note that scholars are still debating whether “advertising campaigns should be standardized or adapted across different cultures” or not.

What this entails in the context of the present-day complexities and challenges in the technologically sophisticated world is that more expertise and investigation is required before the international advertising can fairly find to adhere to one signal approach which beneficiates it in the right manner (Nickerson, & Hoeken, p. 61, 2003).

Multinational Corporations and International Advertisement

In the next section of the paper, multinational business firms’ tendencies are analyzed carefully to examine a number of reasons with regard to the international advertising trends. This is highly significant in the present discussion because it is the multinational that started the international advertising trend and held this trend very firmly up to the very day.

Standardization of International Advertising

The standardization of advertising is one issue that has occupied considerable space in the advertising literature. Although a number of studies have been conducted with regard to the issue of the standardization of advertising, there have been few researchers who have rightly given integrated constructs and models that can determine the course of standardizing the advertisement. Though multinational business corporations are cited for playing a key role to control this very variable, according to Laroche et al., p. 249, 2001, “there is no consistent view concerning the role of this variable,” which serve as a grey area for the standardization confronted by the entire multinational business world across the globe.

The issue, the authors further note that the issue of standardization of advertisement and worldwide marketing has been usually taken as being consistent with the elements which exist in the already practiced publicity norms of a business firm that enters the international business market. As such, there has been a lack of technical attention that is needed in this very area. Since the 1960s, a number of studies have been done with regard to the maintenance of strategies that international business firms can adapt to stay in the global markets. However, the authors, by reviewing the extensive volume of advertising literature, inform that this very focus has been merely on the global image that a multinational firm holds in the expanded market with a specific focus on the transitions of economic and other economy-related issues. However:

Recently, specific business situations such as the trends toward integration within industries (mergers between major companies), as well as the dissemination of global influences through the worldwide adoption of electronic telecommunications (e.g., Internet and satellite) have favored a resurgence of interest in the standardization issue (Laroche, at el., p. 249, 2001).

Moreover, in recent times, advertising standardization has received growing attention throughout the globe, and it is on the side of the Multinational Corporations (MNC), while marketing their products internationally, as to decide now if they should publicize their product with a standardized policy of advertisement. In addition to this debate, there is another issue. There are contradictory findings with respect to the appropriate level of standardization of advertising which further makes the matter more complex, nonetheless giving more importance to the topic.

What the authors adequately make a point in the discussion is that in the past days, most of the studies conducted in this area actually focused on the issues of diverse cultural demands and economic conditions. However, the author cites Solberg (2000), who notes that organizational factors are highly important in the area of advertising standardization. According to him,

market knowledge, at the level of headquarters (HQ), of local market conditions and HQ control of subsidiaries (or influence on their marketing decisions) are two important organizational factors that relate to the degree of standardization in international markets. Of particular relevance, he suggested that standardized strategies are enforced through cooperation with local representatives, learning, and control (Laroche et al., p. 249, 2001).

The authors, as such, conduct the research, under review now, with the hypothesis that MNCs’ control of their subsidiary has a positive impact on the issue of standardization of advertising with some other hypotheses which do not find space in this paper because of their irrelevance to the concerned topic here. The research procedures included sampling population being the executives of five international advertising agencies from a number of different countries, falling in the regions of North America, Asia, Europe, and South America. However, this sampling population was not representative and only included the highly-industrialized countries. The authors did not mention the reason for this very fallacy. The research probe was done with a technically developed questionnaire (1000 in number) which was sent to the executives chosen from indices of a number of sources.

In the later section, the authors discuss a lot of technical issues of data collection and data analysis which can be rated at par with international empirical research. In the discussion of the result, the authors inform the reader that for standardization of advertisement, it is important that the headquarter MNC and its subsidiary entertain an independent practice of decision making with regard to appropriate decisions.

This is very important because of two factors that emerged from the study. These are “similarity in market position” and “country environment conditions.” Therefore, it is important to understand similarities in the market environment, to be familiar with the context of an exotic market, and to share values and beliefs “among subsidiary managers and managers at HQ may make MNCs pursue a centralized control, thereby adopting a standardized approach to international marketing mixes” and international standardization of advertising (Laroche, at el., p. 249, 2001).

Information Content Analysis in Multinational Advertising

In connection to the multinational standardization efforts of advertising, it is highly important to analyze the content of the advertisements that the multinational organizations have to broadcast for a target audience. This is due to multiple reasons. Major reasons for which advertising information analysis is important are:

1. the governments of different countries demand to know beforehand the information that an ad may contain for a number of reasons of regulatory as well as ethical policies;
2. there are numerous nations within this globalized village which may have individual attitudes toward specific information ads of a brand and product;
3. there are controversial debates as to whether a homogeneous information ad is appropriate or it should be tailor-made for specific groups of people.

As such, an approach emerges which views specialization of information content as being more important than the standardized information content being aired internationally. The study “An Analysis of Information Content in Standardized vs. Specialized Multinational Advertisements” by Muller (p. 23, 1991) investigated this very issue. This was in an effort to make sure as from which paradigm of advertisement to choose: whether the standardization or specialization of information content.

The author of the study undertakes a number of samples acquired from the US, Japanese, and French advertising agencies. The sampling was entertained randomly. The information content was analyzed from the campaigns that the sampled agencies aired for publicizing their products, such as U.S.-German or U.S.-Japanese consumer markets.

The data analysis of this study reveals that such products as soaps and toothpaste advertisements did not carry a highly proportioned content of information. However, such products as video cassette recorders and automobiles advertisement gave way to more appealing messages and information to target more and more people. In addition to the above, the analysis also points out the conformity of the widely confirmed belief that “commercial print messages are more informative than commercial broadcast messages. More significantly, highly standardized messages were found to contain fewer information cues than messages defined as highly specialized” (Muller, p. 23, 1991).

Fewer information cues were found in the advertisements, which were standardized for petty products. However, specialized messages held greater informational cues when it came to the same messages. What the author concludes as being the kernel finding of the study is that specialized information content is what is needed by multinational corporations to run their advertisements globally. It is important in terms of meeting as diversified demands as that of a particular culture, a language, an ethnic community, a government regulatory policy, and so on.

If international advertisers decide to employ standardized campaigns in the future increasingly, then one of the most important functions of advertising–providing the consumer with information–may decline. This, in turn, may lead to increasing criticism of global advertisers and the commercial messages they produce (Muller, p. 23, 1991).

By this discussion and review of the study, one thing becomes crystal clear that international advertising faces more complex ground to function in the international market. At present, looking around the world of advertisement (either it is TV, Internet, radio, or print), it is simply noticeable that more and more attention is being paid to tailor-making the advertisement which goes global. This point must be given more technical attention so that a true approach to international advertising can be acquired.

Visual Identity in Multinational Advertising

When it comes to the discussion of a number of such issues as culture, ethnicity, policy-regulation in a specific region, standardization, and information content, it is also important to discuss the importance of visual identity for which different multinational corporations compete in the arena of international advertising not only to gain higher and higher profits but also to achieve longer milestones with reference to market image and reputation. Melewar & Saunders shed scholarly light on this issue in their study “International Corporate Visual Identity: Standardization or Localization?” as:

When products and promotional campaigns change through time and across markets, customers use incorporeal brand names and corporate identities to understand and recognize products or services. Corporate visual identity (CVI) is part of the corporate identity that multinational enterprises (MNEs) can use to project their quality, prestige, and style to stakeholders (Melewar & Saunders, p. 583, 1999).

As such, for visual image keeping and strengthening, there are a number of issues that the authors list in this study. These are:

1. “Cultural differences should be a major influence on international business decisions, yet many firms in this study neglect them” (Melewar & Saunders, p. 583, 1999).
2. It is important to pinpoint that the MNEs with high market profiles specifically lose in the area of specialized content for their advertisement.
3. The companies which give due regard to the element of local culture and their CVI are more likely to form a positive image for the local people.
4. Language modification is also not given as much due importance as it requires. Instead, most of the MNEs only make slight changes to the language of their product, which creates yet another problem.
5. Most MNEs frequently relied on the use of English in the sample region (Malaysia) where the study was undertaken, which is a dire fallacy to the authors in the study.

However, with these points, the authors also point out that these issues are found due to the fact that these MNEs have to give rise to their own culture without only slightly touching a local culture. It is because they have an international brand identity that demands neglect of such factors as quoted above. Moreover, the markets which are small at present also encourage such neglect. What is important is that if markets are large economic set-ups, the above-mentioned points must be given due attention for effective international advertising.

Advertising and Cautious Areas

By far, the paper has discussed a number of issues that are linked to the technical points of international advertising. These issues are of importance, especially when it comes to the professional practice of advertising. As such, the present study specifically focused on the technicalities of the analysis of international advertising. As such, it remained a one-way view of the notion of advertising which was important for the investigation. However, what the paper has not touched upon up to now is the other side of the picture: the audience for which the entire operation of advertising is made to function. In the last section, the study briefly examines a few issues of critical importance with regard to audience and advertising.

A very critical area in this regard is the adverse effect that an ad or a product publicity campaign can have on the audience of children and youth. This is a very challenging area not only in the local context but also in the global context of advertising and brand making. A study “Rethinking Regulation of Advertising Aimed at Children” (Ramsey, p. 173, 2002) discusses at length the harmful effects of content in the advertisement, which were not basically made and were not aimed at children. However, the investigation suggests that children did identify the content of their interest in such ads and were regarded adopting for such products as Budweiser.

This is highly critical due to the fact that cartoon characters and famous-among-children celebrities actually form the information content for such advertisements. Here according to the authors, there is a need to rethink and adjust the regulatory policies with regard to the adverse effects of advertisements on children.

Another study, “Alcohol Advertising and Youth” (Saffer, p. 173, 2002), also discusses the adverse effect of alcohol advertisement, which negatively attracts minors for opting to use alcohol although the advertisements were actually aimed at an older audience. This is due to the fact that precautionary measures were not taken, and this resulted in making minors use alcohol without any hesitation. This trend needs to be altered in an advertisement for better growth and prospect in youth. The author report that advertisement actually targets youth for more sales and prospective future market. This happens not only on TV commercials but also on the Internet:

The Center for Media Education (1998) also found evidence of youth targeting alcohol advertising on the Internet. They monitored alcohol promotion websites for the period of August 18 through October 13, 1998. They found that 62% of the 77 alcohol sites examined used marketing techniques that appealed to youth (Saffer, p. 173, 2002).

With the increase in the international practice of brand making and marketing through international advertising, such impediments need to be addressed with due caution before it becomes the hardcore norm of the entire international advertising agency. This is important due to the fact that such advertisement shows the selfish end of the corporations that only want to gain more and more profits.

Conclusion

International advertising has become a strong part of the daily life of the business world with respect to market image, reputation, brand making, as well as global profit-making. It is in the twenty-first century that this industry views graver challenges and issues relevant to a number of areas. If it is right to suggest that international advertising has gained enormous attention in the business world, a number of controversial issues such as standardization versus specialization of the product; international versus local cultures; aiming for the wrong audience, and so on have also made their presence felt on the global canvas.

There is no doubt that the monopoly of some giant corporations is not the only running factor in the arena of international advertising today. Other regional voices are also heard today, which markedly give way to a different view about advertising information and content. Complexities in communication have also appeared to be different in the present scenario. While trying to reach an international audience, the likelihood of miscommunication across cultures is also there.

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