Summary
Mining is the act of extracting something from the earth. In the ocean, this usually refers to deep-sea mining for minerals and deposits in/on the seafloor. Ocean mining can also include mining for aggregates, like gravel and sand. Offshore sand and gravel extraction involve the abstraction of sediments from a bed that is always covered with seawater. Cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper are among the metals deep seabed mining seeks to extract from the polymetallic nodules on the seafloor and seamounts (Janin, 2021). Dredging, alluvial, and pipe mining techniques extract these metals and minerals.
Ocean Use in Canada and Internationally
Regions with an economic interest in seabed mineral exploration and mining are located in maritime countries. These locations include the Penrhyn Basin-Cook Islands, exclusive economic zones of Papua New Guinea, Japan, and New Zealand, the Clarion–Clipperton nodule Zone, Peru Basin nodules, and the Central Indian Ocean Basin (Miller et al., 2018). In addition, zones such as Chatham Rise, offshore Baja California, and on the shelf off Namibia are major producers of manganese. Canada’s maritime mining zones include New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island (Miller et al., 2018). Europe is the largest producer of marine-dredged sand and gravel, with sand being the most sought-after product. In addition, large amounts are needed for building projects such as the expansion of Hong Kong Airport and the Port of Singapore (Miller et al., 2018). Dubai is a large consumer of marine sand used to build artificial islands such as the Palm Islands despite the readily available desert sand
Evolution of Ocean Use
Mineral resource extraction from the water is by no means a novel endeavor. This activity started in the early twentieth century but did not reach a significant scale until the 1970s when markets for marine sand and gravel expanded and dredging technology improved (Bero, 2022). In the global economy, sand and gravel have always been valuable resources fueled by increased urban development projects. Deep-sea mining has experienced rapid growth over the past ten years due to significant advancements in ocean exploration technologies, rising consumer demand for metals used in technological devices, and the dwindling availability of these metals on land. Two Canadian firms, Nautilus Minerals Inc and The Metals Company, have started mining operations to extract minerals such as sulfides from hydrothermal vents and sea mounts in regions with rich biodiversity (Morse, 2021). The increase in demand for sand and gravel due to the global urbanization boom will result in increased marine sand and gravel mining, as they are key components for building projects.
Regulating Ocean Use
Deep-sea mining should be stopped until the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) requirements are satisfied, including implementing evaluations, efficient regulation, and mitigating measures. There is an international push to halt deep seabed mining before it completely ruins deep marine ecosystems leading to the loss of biodiversity not explored by man. Many NGOs call for a global moratorium on deep-sea mining, especially on the high seas (Oceans North, 2022). Canada and other maritime nations are discussing proposals regarding the rules, criteria, and recommendations for exploiting the oceans’ seabed. However, these proposed regulations do not establish culpability for harm to the seabed and associated ecosystems and are not supported by reliable evidence.
Policies and Regulations
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is the leading international framework for policing the ocean’s use. The legislation aims to ensure that the seas and oceans are used for both individual and collective human benefit in a peaceful, cooperative, and legally defined manner. The International Seabed Authority oversees activity in the high seas regions outside of national jurisdiction. ISA’s responsibility is to ensure that the marine environment is effectively protected from any negative repercussions that might result from deep-seabed-related operations (International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2022). The ISA has granted 31 contracts to companies to explore deep-sea mineral resources without international guidelines on deep-sea mining.
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is developing rules that allow mining on the seabed within the next two years. In June 2021, the Government of Nauru notified the ISA of its intention to start deep-sea mining (Morse, 2021). The ISA rule requires countries that have signed UNCLOS to consider deep-sea mining exploitation permits, regardless of whether authorities have established regulations to govern the practice (Jind, 2019). Canada has regulations that effectively ban deep seabed mining in Canadian territorial waters. Mining the seabed is fundamentally incompatible with the Law of the Sea Convention, which Canada has ratified. This convention mandates effective marine environment protection (Oceans North, 2022). The creation of large sediment plumes in the marine environment is recognized as one of the most detrimental aspects of deep seabed mining to the seabed and the biologically diverse regions. Provisions under the Fisheries Act limit the amount of sediment that may be released in fish-bearing waters in recognition of the harmful effects on fish Coumans, 2021). Deep seabed mining models project that heavily-sedimented effluents will be ejected from a support ship each day, thus disrupting the ocean ecosystem.
References
Bero, T. (2022). How our demand for sand is destroying our world. CBC.
Coumans, C. (2021). Canada’s role in deep seabed mining. Mining Watch Canada.
International Union for Conservation of Nature. (2022). Deep-sea mining. IUCN.
Janin, P. D. (2021). Ocean mining.The Marine Bio Conservation Society.
Jind, S. (2019). It’s only a matter of time before deep-sea mining comes to Canada. We’re not ready. The Narwhal.
Miller, K. A., Thompson, K. F., Johnston, P., & Santillo, D. (2018). An Overview of Seabed Mining Including the Current State of Development, Environmental Impacts, and Knowledge Gaps.Frontiers in Marine Science, 4:418.
Morse, I. (2021). Canadian miner looms large as Nauru expedites key deep-sea mining rules.Mongabay Environmental News.
Oceans North. (2022). Canadians call for a moratorium on deep seabed mining. Oceans North.