Modern Chinese History: Primary Sources’ Analysis Essay

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Introduction

It was a clash of titans. In the middle part of the 19th century, China and Britain were in conflict over the Opium trade. Great Britain had a very lucrative business in selling the drug while at the same it was wreaking havoc in China. The Emperor was torn whether to legalize or ban the use of Opium.

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The government decided on the latter and then proceeded to lay down the law forcing British merchants to flee from Canton and relocate to Macao but this was seen as an affront to the British Crown. In 1839 Lin Zexu a high imperial commissioner wrote a letter to the Queen of England wanting to inform her of the state of affairs in China. A few months later a letter from England arrived. Lord Palmerston’s letter was not asking for forgiveness but a veiled threat for war. The two letters would change the course of history.

Background

For thousands of years, China was a world unto itself. Its Northern borders were blocked by Mongolia and Russia. Its Western borders on the other hand were blocked by the Himalayan mountain ranges. Going to the East, the Chinese has to cross the Pacific Ocean in order for them to reach Europe and the same could be said of foreign invaders and potential trading partners. Realistically the Chinese people had to use a circuitous route, the Silk Road in order for them to establish trade relations as far as Europe where they could really make serious money. But for the most part, they were content to simply let the whole world come to its doorsteps because China had a wonderful array of products that the known world would like to covet.

China’s geographical features, its great landmass and its large population, its natural resources, and great wealth allowed the Empire to grow in strength, dynasty after dynasty. The completion of the Great Wall allowed for a sense of security. As a whole, it can be argued that only Japan and Mongolia had a realistic chance of ever defeating China. The rest of the world will find it difficult to scale the Himalayas, traverse the rugged terrain of Afghanistan, cross the frozen tundra of Russia and cross the Pacific Ocean.

There is simply no way for European invaders to easily march to China and engage her in a land war. All of that would change in the 18th and 19th centuries when Great Britain became the undisputed global superpower, the British navy can easily cross the world’s oceans and bring the fight right into the heart of China. The irony of it is this, China or at least the Emperor and his cohorts were blinded by their false sense of grandeur and could not fully understand a world where China is not the center.

Lin Zexu’s Letter

The letter began by extolling the virtues of the Emperor. But reading between the lines, one could not help but be astonished at the fact that the Emperor sees himself as a god. In the opening part of the letter, Lin Zexu was reminding the Queen of England that the Emperor was benevolent but then went on to say that he has the power to do as he pleases. But then again this was tempered with the idea that he does these things because it will benefit the whole world.

One of the most amazing statements in the letter can be found in the first two sentences where the Chinese official was giving a hint that although the Emperor reigns in China his power reaches beyond the seas. Lin Zexu wrote, “
if a source of profit exists anywhere, diffuses it over the whole world – who if a tree of evil takes root anywhere, plucks it up for the benefit of all” (Spence, 497). The Emperor can be described as either very arrogant, delusional, or simply naïve. The Chinese Empire believes that the world revolves around them.

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The long introduction was not over even after declaring that it is only through the good graces of the Emperor that the British were able to trade in Chinese territory. Lin Zexu went on to declare that the Chinese Empire is not actually a worldly kingdom but a heavenly dynasty an allusion to the long-held belief that the Emperor was descended from the gods. If this is not enough, the letter also declared that the Chinese Empire governs the heavens and the earth (Document 1, 3).

Then it continues, Lin Zexu went even further to remind the Queen of England of her rightful place and it is to be obedient to the Emperor in the same way that her predecessors were respectful and overwhelmed by the generosity of the Emperor. Finally, Lin Zexu delivered the last part of the condescending letter and that is a reminder to the Queen, that England became prosperous only because it was given the chance to trade with the Empire.

Only after being satisfied that he had successfully terrorized the Queen, or so he thought, Lin Zexu began to tell the real reason for the communiqué. He merely wanted to convey the indignation of the Emperor with regards to the destructive effects of the Opium trade. Lin Zexu proceeded to inform the Queen that the Empire already issued an ultimatum that within a year and a half no one will be allowed to trade in Opium. To make himself very clear Lin Zexu clarified that if someone accidentally brought Opium to China that same person will only be forgiven if he willingly comes forward and surrenders every gram of the forbidden substance. If there is willful disobedience to this command then Lin Zexu warned that they will slay and exterminate, even foreigners.

The Emperor had every right to enforce the law with regards to the banning of Opium. According to historical documents, there is an already estimated one million Chinese addicts. The Opium trade is killing the Chinese people and a great leader could not simply sit back and watch his people get weakened by a harmful drug. On the other hand, it can also be argued that the Emperor is doing all of these not to protect his people but simply to protect the economic interest of China.

For thousands of years, the whole world was very eager to buy Chinese-made products, there was a great demand for Chinese silk and other exotic wares but this time it is the Chinese who are desperate for European products when it comes to consumption of Opium. In the world of exports and imports, there is a great imbalance that exists in 1839, money is flowing out from China and into British treasuries.

Palmerston’s Letter

In that same year the British Foreign Minister, Lord Palmerston already made up his mind that England could not take these insulting remarks sitting down. He made plans to display the strength of the British navy and challenge the strength of the Chinese Empire. But he did not inform the Emperor and his ministers about his plans until the end of the winter season in February 1840 – presumably to give no time for China to prepare for an attack. On the other hand, it can also be interpreted as Palmerston’s supreme confidence concerning the might of the English armada that he did not care what the Emperor would say regarding the issue, he was confident that the flotilla of British warships would do the talking for him.

Palmerston’s letter was a stark contrast to Lin Zexus’s letter. Whereas the official Chinese letter was heavily laden with a long introduction describing the “celestial” grandeur of the Chinese Empire and then made more complicated by its incessant reminder of the inferiority of other kingdoms such as the British, Palmerston’s reply was direct. Palmerston used only one phrase that would have provided a modicum of diplomacy and then went for the jugular.

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The British high official slowed down a little bit in the introduction part when he said that it was an honor to inform the minister of the Emperor and then quickly changed to high gear by saying that the Queen had sent a Naval and Military Force to China (Spence, 123).

Palmerston was very clear as to the purpose of sending the fleet, it is to demand satisfaction and redress for the injuries and insults that were inflicted by the Chinese authorities against British subjects that reside in China. One could not help but wonder if Palmerston considered the letter of Lin Zexu as part of the many insults inflicted by the Chinese.

As mentioned earlier the motive of the Chinese Emperor was suspect. Is it really due to his benevolence and wisdom that he is banning Opium – to protect his people from harm – or is it due to the disadvantageous position that it has caused the Empire? This is very obvious to the British Crown especially to the Foreign Minister, Lord Palmerston. For him, this is purely business. This ban is not for health reasons but to eliminate the presence of British merchants because it is disadvantageous to China.

But Palmerston’s strategy is not to engage China in a debate regarding the benefits of free trade he simply argued that if there is a law that prohibits the sale and consumption of Opium then why is it that Chinese authorities made money from such transactions. Palmerston added that this is done in plain view and that the Emperor knows about it. It is clear that Palmerston is tightening the noose and ready to engage in war. For him, this is an all-or-nothing proposition and he was determined to force China to reverse its decision regarding the ban on the Opium trade.

Conclusion

It is obvious that China existed on a different plane. It is hard for the Chinese Empire to consider itself as one of the many kingdoms that are sharing the resources of the planet. More importantly, the Emperor could not accept that his kingdom is in considerable decline. The letter from Lin Zexu was very condescending and informs the rest of the world that the Emperor considers everything under his feet.

The most interesting aspect of Chinese foreign policy is not only limited in its pronouncements that it is a heavenly kingdom and on top of everything but also in its belief that it can influence others to do its bidding. Lin Zexu said that if a tree of evil takes root anywhere in the world then it has the power to uproot it. And then later on Lin Zexu commanded the Queen of England to destroy the Opium plantation. Putting two and two together one will realize that Chinese foreign policy includes telling others what to do and expecting them to comply with much trembling and fear.

But China made a mistake. The Emperor and his cohorts seemed to have forgotten that it was already in the middle of the 19th century when the British Empire was a force to reckon with. The Chinese were blinded by a false sense of grandeur while the British were well aware of their capabilities. Lord Palmerston’s letter reveals that England is not only sovereign but it considers itself to be at least on equal footing with everyone, even those who consider themselves to have descended from gods. Lord Palmerston as the Foreign Minister revealed to the world that British foreign policy does not tolerate this display of arrogance and brazen disrespect for the British people.

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"Modern Chinese History: Primary Sources' Analysis." IvyPanda, 23 Sept. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/modern-chinese-history-primary-sources-analysis/.

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IvyPanda. (2021) 'Modern Chinese History: Primary Sources' Analysis'. 23 September.

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IvyPanda. 2021. "Modern Chinese History: Primary Sources' Analysis." September 23, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/modern-chinese-history-primary-sources-analysis/.

1. IvyPanda. "Modern Chinese History: Primary Sources' Analysis." September 23, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/modern-chinese-history-primary-sources-analysis/.


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IvyPanda. "Modern Chinese History: Primary Sources' Analysis." September 23, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/modern-chinese-history-primary-sources-analysis/.

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