Personal Protective Equipment for Firefighters Report (Assessment)

Introduction and significance

Background

Fire is the invention of man and played a major role in advancing his life. For instances fire has been used to cook, heat boilers in industries warm bodies, clear lands among others. However, there have been various incidences in which fire has proved very destructive especially in areas where it was not wanted. This has led to the loss of not only properties but precious human lives both of the victims and firefighters. It is worth noting from the onset that fire outbreaks can be attributed to two main causes; accidental and deliberate. All of these causes are serious and result in serious and unimaginable consequences.

It is for the serious impact of the fire that the department of fire fighting was initiated within every country to respond to fire incidences. In Australia, the police charged three teenagers with causing a school blaze that caused destruction to part of Wavell Heights State School in Chermside. Another incident of fire in Australia is the one involving the ignition of gallons of oils; fortunately, this was brought down successfully.

Despite the fact that there have been incidences where fires have been successfully handled, the problems and hazards the firefighter’s encounter have not been evaluated by the relevant authorities. For that matter, it is important to point out from the onset that the profession of fighting fire is one of the dangerous ventures. In the United States for instance the departments of fire respond to close to 2 million fires annually this has been shown to translate to 4 fires after a minute (Watts, 2003). Those who lose their lives are approximately 5,000 while about 100,000 sustain serious injuries while property loss runs in excess of 10 billion. Returning on the hazardous consequences of fire to firefighters, close to 100 of them die per year while in line of duty (Watts, 2003). The causes might be direct fires, falling debris among others. It has been shown that primarily, safety can be enhanced through engineering techniques rather than the use of personal protective equipment. The methods used in most cases include design change, mechanical handling, automation, ventilation among others. However in situations where it is no longer possible to impose any effective engineering methods to help control hazards, then workmen have no option other than to use PPE. The research paper thus closely examines the role of PPE in reducing incidences of death and injury for firefighters when on duty.

Research problem

firefighters who are “are individuals extensively trained primarily to put out hazardous fires that threaten civilian populations and property, to rescue people from car incidents, collapsed and burning buildings and other such situations” despite the fact that they are trained they are also in potential danger of losing their lives while trying to save others’ lives. Statistics show that close to 100 firefighters die annually in the U.S. The major goals of fire fighting include personal safety, saving the lives of the victims, saving properties as well as protecting the environment. For this reason for one to do this successfully and safely there is a need to undergo training. It is important to remember that firefighters are also called upon to provide victims with emergency medical services as well as protect the scene of the crime. The dangers they have been exposed to warrants the use of personal protective equipment. This thus calls for evaluation of the role the PPE plays in protecting firefighters.

Purpose

One of the most important things that should take care of it in the field of fire fighting is the safety of firefighters, through the use of personal protective equipment by checking the selection and correct use of them.

In general, personal protective equipment it’s not the first option to control the potential hazard. PPE shall be used in conjunction with other efforts to eliminate hazards and reduce injuries such as many of the controls and procedures, and safe work practices. So, this study establishes personal protective equipment (PPE) to be utilized by firefighter members when operating at incidents or during training.

In addition, the impact of the use of personal protective equipment for firefighters to reduce injuries during incidents, made on the basis of risk assessments relevant in particular with the Australian Standards and other international standards associated with the subject.

Scope

firefighters who may participate in these usual incidents are targeted in this study; they are required to select, use and care for personal protective equipment during the incidents or training to prevent exposure to injuries or hazards. Officials and supervisors are required to ensure that the equipment was properly selected and diligently used to protect them from risks, as well as take care of it. The study excluded the exceptional nature of incidents that require special handling such as chemical fires, biological or radiological, etc.

Significance of the study

The findings herein will help those in the fire-fighting department know the role that PPE plays in fostering the safety of firefighters. Similarly, other relevant information for instance characteristics of fires, hazard assessment for firefighters, statistics on death and injuries due to fire, issues regarding occupational hazards and PPE for firefighters among others will be brought to light in a clear manner. Done in a rational manner, then all the relevant stakeholders will be fully aware of issues regarding fire and how best to address the problem. To firefighters, they will benefit since improvement will be recorded in how they use PPE to protect themselves. This will go an extra mile in reducing the number of firefighters who die annually while in the line of duty. Similarly, the manufacturers of the PPE will incorporate some changes in order to fit the required standards from the relevant federal rules and guidelines (Lentile, et al., 2006).

Historical overview of the PPE to firefighters

As noted previously, fire-fighting has been thought of as a dangerous activity that calls for having in place specialized equipment to aid users successfully and safely curb emergencies due to fire (Hasenmeier, 2008). The most important one has been grouped as the personal protective clothing which includes pants, hoods, coats, helmets, boots, gloves, breathing equipment as well as personal alert safety systems (MacCollum, 2006). It is no doubt that what the present firefighters are putting on today is by far much different from what was worn by their counterparts some decades ago. This thus explains that there have been drastic changes in how the PPE has been manufactured.

According to Hasenmeier, 2008: pp.1 “unfortunately, there isn’t a lot of good and accurate information documented about the history of PPE, but some theories of yesteryear and modern-day requirements have helped me to piece together how a firefighter’s ensemble came to be”. In the early years, it is evident that mankind had to fight fires, heat as well as smoke with the absence of modern technologies. This led to a scenario in which buildings more often than not burned down to ashes since firefighters were not in a position to fight the fire from the inside. This was the case since the clothing the firefighters were provided with was not sufficient enough to protect them from flames and heat. With the passage of time so did improvement in PPE recorded (Lentile, et al., 2006). The first fire helmet was made available back in the 1730s thanks to the efforts of Jacobus Turck. The helmet was made up of leather and a high crown and a wide brim. A century later Gratacap came up with the traditional fire helmet which looks similar to what current firefighters use. The design encompassed a dome-shaped helmet made of leather having a front shield and brim that rolled to a long back tail (Watts, 2003). This offered protection from falling objects as well as water that could flow back of the equipment.

During the 1840s the uniform to be used by firefighters was being produced. It was made up of wool and offered protection from extreme temperatures. Pants, as well as long coats, were made up of wool, under the coat firefighters put on a red shirt made up of cotton or wool. This was also accompanied by leather boots. With the advent of rubber, slickers made up of rubber which was worn on top of the wool clothing was beneficial as it offered further protection from heat as well as keeping the firefighter dry the same applied to rubber boots (Lentile, et al., 2006). During this time the use of respiratory protection was very minimal. History has it that firefighters left their beards to grow then soak them in water bite them and breathe through them when in an environment full of smoke (Hasenmeier, 2008). The beards were used as filters. In the year 1825, Giovanni tried to design a mask to provide firefighters with protection from heat and offer them fresh air. The initiative saw to it that numerous efforts were put in place to come up with more effective respiratory equipment (MacCollum, 2006).

Similarly, it was at this period in time that efforts were put in developing a helmet that would have a hose to supply fresh air to users. It was until 1863 that self-contained breathing equipment was available thanks to Braidwood. It was made up of two canvas bags joined and lined with rubber. “An airtight back worn on the back of the user was connected with two hoses made of rubber made it possible for the wearer to breath fresh air” (Lentile, et al., 2006; pp.342). Other equipment that was used included goggles, leather hood, nose clamp and a whistle- Braidwood’s design.

After the first and second world wars, there was a significant development in PPE. The results were long rubber trench coats, boots that were rubber in nature as well as a traditional fire helmet. The long boot covered the users’ legs to above their knees. Immediately after the Second World War standards for firefighters PPE were developed. A number of tests were performed which guided the creation of standards for developing PPE. In the U.S the frontrunner of doing this was the National Fire Protection Association. According to Lentile, et al., 2006; p. 232

[…fire-fighting coats were to have three layers the outer one which would withstand temperatures of about 500 degrees F for about 5 minutes, the second one to prevent water from passing through to the wearer and the last layer which is the inner one was to provide protection from convection, radiation as well as conduction heat transfers]

In 1945, breathing equipment was developed to be used by the crew in the aviation industry. This was after a realization that the filter masks were not offering the desired protection as well as enough breathing air. In the 1970s the PPE used included the following “a vinyl silver long coat, three-quarter rubber boots, orange rubber gloves, and a plastic fire helmet resembling the material used in modern-day construction hard hats” (Lee & Meyer, 2000; pp.45). These were used till 1984 when a new set of PPE was introduced. They consisted of pants having suspenders and a coat of black cotton or wool material. Interestingly, a standard for coming up with personal alert safety system devices was crafted in 1982. The essence of the device was to send signals that were audible in situations where a firefighter became motionless or was in danger of suffocating. Additionally, it was in this period 1980s that materials that could resist fire were used to manufacture the outer layer of the coats and pants.

Currently, fire-fighting PPE used is made up of a collection of yesteryears of testing and technological advancement. It is no doubt that coats and pants have three layers with improved materials used in terms of temperature resistance. There are numerous pockets making it possible for the wearer to carry multiple tools that are essential in fighting the fire. The advent of the PASS device which opens up sending an audio alarm makes it known that a firefighter is running out of fresh air supply. Advancement in PPE is the development of escape ropes which are essential in situations where a rescue will be needed.

It is no doubt that turnout gears as well as manufacturers of PPE are continuing to develop new designs to come up with improved firefighter safety. In the future, I foresee a situation where standards might include increased thermal performance standards, using global positioning systems linked to SCBA. From the review of the history of the use of PPE in fire-fighting, it is evident that there has been tremendous improvement which will continue with the advent of technology. Although fire has been viewed as a harsh reality the ability to have well-developed equipment has played a role in enabling firefighters not only to save lives or property but also their own safety (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

A safe environment for firefighters

From the previous sections, the responsibilities bestowed to firefighters are in no doubt enormous and are thus a matter of life and death. They are responsible for saving lives, property among other things. It thus goes without saying that for them to be effective in doing so there is a need to provide them with a safe working environment that will offer them an ample opportunity to save lives and property (Lee & Meyer, 2000). It has been proved that to successfully provide firefighters with a safe environment, then protecting them from injuries when dealing with the incident follows the following; hazard assessment, selection of appropriate personal protective equipment as well as offering firefighters adequate training on a number of issues regarding the fire.

Hazard assessment is a process usually required by law to identify the hazards linked to a defined task. It is here that a prescription of PPE as well as other relevant protection measures that opt to be employed to reduce risks from hazards. On the same note, the proper choice of PPE follows. The following factors opt to be followed when choosing or selecting PPE; the nature as well as the severity of the hazard, the various types of containment, their concentration, the degree to which the material used to make PPE can withstand high temperatures and pressures, conformity of the equipment with the Australian laws, the ease with which the equipment can be maintained and cleaned, the comfort of the wearer, the operating capabilities as well as limitations of the PPE and finally the expected activities of a firefighter and the duration of the activity. It would be useless to have all the two in place without proper training of the users on how to address all emerging issues while fighting fires. This enhances their chances of taking rational steps while in their line of duty hence a safer environment not only for themselves but for their team members.

Definition of terms

Firefighters; “are individuals extensively trained primarily to put out hazardous fires that threaten civilian populations and property, to rescue people from car incidents, collapsed and burning buildings and other such situations” (Tomecek, & Smeaton, 2004; p. 2). It is worth noting that there are two main categories of firefighters; those paid and voluntary ones.

Personal protective equipment; Has been thought of as clothing, gloves, helmets, respiratory equipment, goggles, belts, and boots among others that are designed to protect the body of the one wearing from injuries caused by falling objects, sharp objects, electrical hazards, heat, infections among others for a job related occupational safety as well as health purposes. The major purpose of PPE is to reduce workers’ exposure to hazards in situations where engineering, as well as administrative efforts, are not sufficient (Hasenmeier, 2008).

Protection; Protection is a term used to describe the act of ensuring that an individual in this context a firefighter is saved from injuries while in his line of duty. The measures taken are well spelled out in various standards.

Standards; Refers to a rule or principles that authority or organization considers being a basis for comparing and to be used to approve other projects. Standards usually define certain criteria that should be followed when doing something for instance developing PPE (Lentile, et al., 2006).

Hazards; “Have been defined as situations that pose a substantial amount or level of threat to life, health, property as well as the surrounding” (Hasenmeier, 2008; p.173). It has been thought that most hazards are dormant associated with a theoretical risk of harm. Risk is a result of a combination of hazard and vulnerability. Three broad categories of hazard are dormant, active and armed.

Assessment; in this context assessment refers to the steps or processes used to identify hazards as well as risks. Both qualitative and quantitative attributes are ascribed. Assessments are always important procedures that raise awareness of various interfaces in fire issues; it contributes to developing and adopting better strategies to mitigate the problems (Lentile, et al., 2006).

Risk assessment; according to FEMA, refers to “a quantitative and qualitative tool used for measuring the probability of incident occurrence and impact that a given area may experience if certain criteria are met during an incident”

Characteristics of fire

Introduction to fire protection

It is no doubt that fire has been used during all the stages of human civilization. The advent of controlled use of fire saw to it that heat, as well as light, was generated making it possible for a man to cook food; this was important since it enhanced nutrition in food. The heat was also used to make people stay warm during cold weather. Similarly, fire has been used to keep wild animals away from man hence enhancing security. However, during its use, there are incidences that fire has proved to be very dangerous whether it was accidental or intentional. People have lost life, property as well as wild animals as a result of a fire that has gone beyond human control. By definition, fire has been thought of as the quick oxidation of materials through combustion which releases heat, light as well as various reaction by-products. Fire usually begins in situations where flammable or materials that are combustible get combined with an adequate amount of oxidizers for instance oxygen or other compounds that are rich in oxygen are exposed to a source of heat usually above the flashpoint for the oxidizer producing a chain of reaction. It is worth noting that fires only exist when the mentioned conditions are present and in their right proportions.

Generally speaking, there are two types of fire; confined and non-confined fires. The former according to NFIRS refers to a class of fire confined to certain types of objects or equipment while the latter is not confined to specific objects or equipment. Strictly speaking, the general causes of fires have been grouped into the following; cooking, heating, electrical malfunction for instance short circuits and wiring problems, unintentional, accidental or careless causes, open flames usually linked to candles and matches and finally intentional causes where individuals set a building or a property on fire with malicious intentions. Characteristically most fires originate when considering residential houses to be from the kitchen, bedrooms, common rooms, den, living room, bathrooms, checkrooms, lavatories, laundry area as well as an exterior balcony. When considering industries, it is evident that most fire originates from where electrical appliances are situated, chemical explosions, hot or smoldering tools as well as heat from powered equipment.

Considering the negative consequences of fire, it is only rational to have efforts in place to protect as well as prevent fires from extending damages. For that reason, there has been in place fire fighting services provision especially in highly developed regions to help contain or put down uncontrolled fires. firefighters use several types of apparatus which include sufficient water supply, fire hydrants or even type A and B foam. It is worth remembering that the firefighters have at their disposal personal protective clothing which plays a major role in ensuring that they are safe when executing their task. The major intention of preventing fire is to help cut down the sources of ignition (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011). Additionally educating the relevant stakeholders has been thought to be one of the strategies in preventing fire as people are taught how to avoid causing fires as well as how to respond in case of a fire-out break. Similarly, other strategies aimed at preventing and protecting people from fires include carrying out drills particularly in tall buildings and institutions of learning. This plays an important role in informing as well as preparing people on how to react to a burning building (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

On the same note, engineering methods demand that certain standards be followed when constructing buildings. The standards have been shown to help in minimizing damages resulting from fire. Having in place fire sprinklers is a form of active fire protection mechanism. Similarly, there are incidences where passive fires are as dangerous as active fires (MacCollum, 2006). To curb this federal government under the relevant ministry has in place mechanisms to test the ability of construction materials to resist or withstand higher temperatures or heat, material flammability as well as combustibility. Additionally, materials used in vehicles such as carpets, plastics as well as upholstery are tested to enhance safety. The failure of these mechanisms has seen to it that the insurance sector shielding citizens from damages as a result of fire sprout and gain popularity; the insurance only helps offset the financial impact.

Fire hazard assessment overview

Fire hazard assessments are the steps or processes used to identify qualitative and quantitative attributes of situations that pose a substantial amount or level of threat to life, health, property as well as surroundings as a result of fire outbreaks. This will help the relevant stakeholders to put on prescribed personal protective equipment and take other relevant steps in order to minimize risks from hazards. From existing literature, it is evident that the mechanisms employed when assessing fire hazards have tremendously improved. The major aim of this strategy has been to help the relevant authorities as well as stakeholders to be in the forefront in preventing as well as protecting human lives as well as other properties from the serious consequences of fire. Nonetheless, it is worth mentioning that the entire process of fire hazard assessment is a daunting task but the results are worth the efforts put in if everything was carried out in the most rational way. The process of assessing fire hazards is also made up of fire hazard analysis which eventually has an impact on personnel.

Fire hazard analysis

It is no doubt that there has been tremendous improvement in the manner with which fire has been addressed in terms of changes and advancement in tools, equipment, engineering construction and personnel training. Additionally, the concept of hazard analysis has contributed to increasing success and safety when fighting fires. Tomecek & Smeaton, 2008 have noted that new methods of fire analysis are creating chances for a sober application of fire prevention requirements that could not be otherwise evident to the common citizens. The two also held that;

[…by using a more formalized approach to fire hazards analysis, issues related to fire prevention can be identified that are not necessarily addressed by prescriptive controls or fire protection systems. The use of a fire hazards analysis framework can identify the limits of traditional approaches and can be used to structure and integrate fire prevention and protection programs accordingly. Combining fire hazards analysis with risk assessment, system design, and performance-based analyses, specific fire prevention needs can be identified and effective controls can be developed.] (Tomecek & Smeaton, 2008; 1)

It is worth remembering here that there is no single definition of fire hazard analysis however it is a process that entails a comprehensive evaluation of major causes of fire, impacts of fire as well as the consequences brought about by fire-out break.

Impact to personnel

As noted earlier the entire process of assessment and analysis of fire hazards, those individuals who are trained to rescue people, as well as salvage property from destruction as a result of fire, will have an opportunity to be fully aware of how best to tackle occurrence of fire. It is important to recall that the safety of firefighters is paramount to the successful accomplishment of their tasks.

Fire prevention principles

Just like any other field, there are principles that guide fire prevention. There are various codes that help the relevant authorities to curb issues relating to fire. A summary of these codes is provided as follows; there is a need to manage fire, similarly, there is the principle aimed at ensuring that incidences of fire-out breaks via measured aimed at containing as well as reducing fire dangers, early detection of fires together with the associated early warnings to both staff as well as guests to help in facilitating adequate response; this is attained by providing an automatic fire or smoke detection alarms (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011). On the same note engineering methods calls for compartmentalization of buildings as well as constructions of escape routes usually protected from smoke and fire, there is also a need to limit how fire develops and spreads mainly attained by using appropriate construction materials inline the internal as well as the external part of the buildings. Similarly to curb fire there is a need to contain fire and smoke to the rooms in which fire originate accomplished by having in place a self-closing mechanism for doors (Banauch & Alleyne, 2003). Additionally, there is a principle that calls for early suppression of fire achieved by the use of automatic sprinklers, on the same note effective and safe procedures to evacuate victims are necessary usually aided by frequent drills which help in reinforcing as well as improving how the procedures are carried out. Lastly having access and facilities for tackling fire is a requirement.

Hazard assessment for firefighters

Introduction to hazard assessment

Just like another profession, there is a need as previously noted that firefighter need to be provided with a safer working environment. It has been acknowledged that the most valuable part is the health and safety of employees. This calls for effective mechanisms to be in place to help the relevant stakeholders identify and control hazards in the place of work. Additionally, it is worth noting that hazard can be any activity, conditions or even substances that have the capabilities of causing potential harm to individuals, especially employees. Two major categories of hazards are safety and health hazards. All these calls for hazard assessment which has been viewed as an important action in trying to make personnel aware of the various interfaces of fire as well as identifying the necessary steps to arrest the problem. There is always confusion between risk and hazard assessment; to distinguish the two, the latter is the subset of the former. This means that risk assessment refers to a series of hazard assessments that have been analyzed for their potential of occurrences.

Traditionally and even up-to-date fire safety efforts have a foundation on a fire hazard assessment. The assessment in the past was accomplished by the judgment of those deemed to be experts in the field. However, with the passage of time, there has been the development of various forms that help individuals and organizations to successfully carry out fire hazard assessments. Among the forms used in fire hazard assessment include the structure and site hazard assessment form used to critically evaluate the major characteristics of a building, as well as the neighboring area within a radius of 30m, area hazard assessment form, is used exclusively to evaluate the characteristics of the area over than 30m from the building of interest. When these two forms are filled with accurate and up to date information, then interested stakeholders are provided with a comprehensive evaluation or assessment of potential interface fire hazards that a building in question is facing usually from the point of view of the general area and the local site as well as the building. Strictly speaking, fire hazard assessment is made up of four steps which include identifying fire hazards, people at risk, evaluating the risk and finally recording the findings. Having in mind that the entire process is not a one-time event, there is a need to review, monitor and update the findings.

Key hazard analysis

Fire hazard analysis has no single definition, however, it is closely associated with a number of attributes; “An FHA should include a comprehensive evaluation of the causes of, impacts from, and consequences of fire in a specific location. It is a process, in a building, considering the effects of engineered systems, administrative programs, and manual intervention” (Tomecek & Smeaton, 2008; 2). The major purpose of carrying out a fire hazard analysis is to establish expected results of a certain set of conditions-fire scenarios. The latter is usually made up of information of room dimension, its contents, and construction materials, how the room is arranged, location of doors and windows, major attributes that best define the occupants as well as other relevant information that might have an impact on the outcome. Two major goals of fire hazard analysis id to establish the hazards that are present in a given facility that is already in place or under construction. Additionally, it can be used to help in the design in which engineers are given an opportunity to try a given design plan hence evaluated to see whether such a plan meets certain safety measures.

According to Banauch & Alleyne, 2003 there are seven steps that have been thought to be straightforward. The first one is to choose a target outcome, determine the scenarios of interest that could potentially result in an outcome, select a suitable mechanism to be used in predicting growth rates of fire effect, calculate the time required for those in the building to safely move out/evacuated, analyze or examine the impact the occupants or property are exposed to in case of a fire, examine the various uncertainty in the entire process of FHA and finally document the entire process of fire hazard analysis plus the ground for the chose of the model. Evaluation and updating the document are also of the essence.

Identifying workplace hazards

It is worth noting from the onset that the first and very important step in coming up with an all-inclusive safety as well as health program rests on the ability to succinctly identify both physical as well as health hazards in the workplace a process termed hazard assessment. Based on the policy and guidelines discussed in the previous section, there are predetermined steps in identifying workplace hazards. I shall still emphasize here that identification of fire hazards in the place of work goes an extra mile in ensuring the safety of firefighters who are bestowed with the responsibility of saving lives and property from destruction (Hasenmeier, 2008).

To successfully accomplish hazard assessment there is a need to be fully aware of the requirements of the entire process, steps in performing a hazard assessment and finally being able to carry out hazard analysis. All this helps in preventing as well as protecting individuals as well as property from the negative effects of fire. On the same note, it helps in establishing how to control hazards through the use of PPE (MacCollum, 2006).

How to conduct a hazard assessment

As previously noted this is the most important section in trying to safeguard the lives of firefighters. The first step is to identify the various fire hazards usually accomplished by a clear understanding of what are the conditions necessary for a fire to occur. Generally speaking, this step begins with a walk through the chosen facility in which a survey will be carried out aiding the development of a list of potential hazards usually categorized as follows impact, penetration, compression, chemical, heat, light radiations as well as biologic (Rich, 2006). After establishing the general layout of the building there is a need to critically examine the source(s) of power/electricity, potential sources of high temperature that can possibly lead to burns, fires, the major types of chemicals an organization is using, the possibility of falling objects, sources of radiations for instances from such activities as welding, cutting, heat treatment as well as light characterized with very high intensity, harmful dust and the possibility of having pointed objects that could cut, stab or puncture human.

It is here also that cigarettes and match sticks especially from smokers need to be evaluated, naked flames, heaters especially portable gas-fired types noted to be major causes of fires, ensure that electrical switch rooms are empty and that electrical equipment which is portable is in good condition. Considering fuel these are substances that will enhance the spread of fire. For instance, stationeries, envelopes and other paper works need to be accounted for in the assessment, flammable liquids, paint, varnish, curtains, drapes, flammable gases, printed materials and plastic materials need to be identified as fuels.

After establishing the potential hazards in a workplace, it is of essence to identify anyone who might be at risk in case a fire occurs. In situations where the organization has permanent employees, in addition to the customers, part-time staffs, outsourced contractors are among the individual at risk. In residential houses, the family, neighbors, passers-by and friends are at risk in case there is a fire outbreak. Whether in residential houses or business premises those who will fight the fire are also at risk while performing their duties. Generally speaking, the following are groups of individuals at risk; individuals who work alone, members of the public and visitors who might be unfamiliar with the building, individuals who are not in a position to leave the building as soon as possible in case of an emergency (disabled individual, sick people and very old members of the society) and finally individuals facing a language barrier.

The third step has been deemed the most important of all the steps as it forms the basis of risk assessment. Having established the potential hazards as well as those who are at risk, it will only be rational to try to eliminate completely if possible and in situations where this is not possible then there is a need to put in place measures that will help the organization manage the risk at an acceptable threshold. In this step terms evaluating risk four key things are done; assessing risks of hazards as a result of fire outbreak, assessing the risks they identified hazards pose to those at risk, eliminating or managing the fire hazards and finally eliminating or managing the risks to people. Assessing the risk of fire calls for a thorough examination of the possible hazards and assessing the potentiality of each one turning into fire.

It is here that the possible consequences are examined as results of carelessness or being forgetful and finally examine the possibility of someone maliciously starting a fire with ease the latter calls for an examination of how fuels such as papers are available and stored. When assessing risk to people, judgment is made probably by using probabilistic manipulations to find out the likelihood of the risks to the identified people. It is in this section that how fire spreads from the place of origin is critically examined (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011).

Additionally, escape route opt to be also critically evaluated as well as the time to evacuate individuals. In trying to eliminate or manage fire hazards there is a need to have a clear understanding of the conditions in which fire will prevail. For instance, removing or minimizing sources of ignition could play a major role. However having in mind that the majority of businesses will not operate without power, there is a need to have in place certain policies that will help eliminate certain sources such as matches and cigarettes (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011). Similarly eliminating or tremendously reducing sources of fuel for instance reducing the potential of allowing combustibles, have special storage facilities for flammable liquids and gases. Lastly eliminating or reducing sources of oxygen by maintaining all fire doors as well as ensuring that doors and windows are closed when no one is in the office.

To eliminate or reduce risk to people there is a need to have in place well spell fire precautions, training staffs on issues relating to fire occurrence, having fire extinguishers, escape routes sprinklers, have areas of restrictions, fire safety signs, alarm systems among other possible measures aimed at reducing risk to a human being. The last step in the assessment of fire hazards and for that matter any hazard is to record the findings. Among the things recorded include the steps to be taken in situations where fire occurs, detailed information of relevant personnel with certain prescribed responsibilities, tasks and duties, the identified risks during the assessment, an explanation of escape routes, details on the fire alarms systems, the management steps the organization will take in order to reduce the identified risks and finally the information on fire fighting equipment as well as other safety equipment. It is worth noting that the whole process is not a one-time event and it will call for reviews from time to time.

Firefighter deaths and Injuries due to fires

Introduction to the potential for deaths and injury

It is no doubt that the entire process of fighting fire is surrounded by various dangerous events. This section will critically evaluate the major potential for death and injuries provide a statistical overview of injuries and death through confrontation accidents, the seriousness of the potential injuries as well as an overview of the potential hazards. It is acknowledged that the five major types/ categories of injuries during fire-fighting operation include fire incidence, fire ground, non-fire emergency, training and other on-duty activities. For the purposes of this paper, the two categories of focus are fire incidence and training. The reason for this rests on the fact that all potential hazards have been encountered by a firefighter during practical training.

Statistic of injuries and deaths

Historically firefighters have lost their lives and scores get either mild or very serious injuries. However, it is worth noting that the number of victims either dying or suffering from serious and life-threatening injuries has tremendously reduced thanks to the efforts being made from all relevant quotas (Rich, 2006). In the United States, for instance, the number of firefighters dying annually has been approximately 100 while on duty while several thousand suffer from all sorts of injuries. Strictly speaking, although there have been reduced death incidences; the number of firefighters fatalities per 100,000 incidents has gone up (Watts & Hall, 2002). The number of firefighters losing their lives as well as sustaining injuries while on duty brought about national attention leading to research as well as studies that have seen to it that PPE has been tremendously improved. Other issues such as engineering methods as well as administration efforts have since been beefed to help reverse the situation. The table below gives a summary of deaths as well as injuries sustained by firefighters from 1981 to 2010 in the United States.

It is worth noting that the injuries sustained and the number of death includes those incidences such as road collision while on route to the calls. A substantial number of a firefighter has lost their lives when their tankers or another kind of motor vehicle collide with others. Most of these types of accidents result in explosions characterized by fires (Rasbash, et al., 2004).

Considering the nature of fatal injuries, it is evident from studies carried out since 1990-2000 that the leading fatal injury to firefighters is a heart attack; the second most is trauma as well as internal head injuries. On the same note, it has been shown that Asphyxia and burns come in third and more firefighters lose their lives due to trauma as compared to a lot of death as a result of asphyxia and burns combined (Watts &. Hall, 2002).

Analysis of those affected reveals shocking findings. Approximately 60.0% of those who die are slightly above 40 years while about 30.0% were above 50 years. Similarly, those who were under the age of 35 years had a likelihood of dying due to complications linked to trauma. Having in mind that there are full-time, part-time and volunteers when it comes to fire-fighting studies shows clearly that those at risk and indeed those who die in big numbers are volunteers.

When considering death and injuries related to fire in Australia domestic fire has been deemed the major cause of death. Averagely 98 deaths were recorded between the periods of 2007 to 2009. During the same period, close to 3,380 individuals with injuries were hospitalized. The number of genuine fires that were responded to totaled 112,035. It is important to note that the country has a total of 13,752 full-time firefighters (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011).

From the discussion above the injuries are so serious that may leave one dead or live with certain harsh realities. For instance, there are some of the firefighters who have lost some of their body parts for good for example amputation of a limb. On the same note, others who were not well protected inhale toxic gases leaving them with damaged respiratory organs thus unable to normally breathe. Similarly due to burns survivors have to endure burnt skin; thankfully the advent of plastic surgery has seen to it that such a problem is addressed. However, research has shown that slightly over a half of injuries sustained by firefighters do not result in lost work time as such injuries are treated on sight accomplished by the provision of first aid or later treatment after the incident by a qualified doctor.

Close to 30.0% of injuries sustained by firefighters lead to lost work time. However those with serious injuries contribute to only 2.0% although such individuals are provided with first aid on-scene and later offered with proper medication, the majority either die due to complications or remain permanently deformed. Interestingly there are some of the firefighters who die during training. It is important to note here that the number has tremendously declined prior to 2004. About six percent of all deaths are associated with training. When broken down, physical exercise or fitness is the biggest contributor to those who die during training, the second contributor is PPE drills and the last one is live-fire exercise.

Potential hazards

The entire activity of bringing down fire is faced with a number of potential hazards that when they occur are indeed life-threatening. From hazard assessment, a list of potential hazards can be generated. In this case, examples of potential hazards include fire flames and radiation, falling objects, electric shock, sharp static objects, toxic gases, molten metals and harmful dust among others.

Sources and classification of injuries

One of the notable hazards is moving objects. Although one might think that in a burning build there will be no movement of objects, there are possibilities that in case people were inside, the commotion they cause might result in moving objects such as furniture and the likes. It has been noted also that there is potential movement especially when the burning structure has been weakened by the fire. There are cases where firefighters are fighting the fire from inside and are unaware of when a building is collapsing. When firefighters are trapped inside and the efforts to rescue them are not possible then such individuals in most cases lose their lives. In situations where they are signaled and try to escape when the timing is not correct, then they may escape with life-threatening injuries. When the building is not collapsing, certain structures are weakened and get detached whence they fall and hit firefighters may result in confusion or even collapse of the firefighter hence impeding movement this puts their lives in danger (Banauch & Alleyne, 2003).

During fire outbreaks, there are two obvious components, flames and radiations. The two have been deemed very destructive to the human body especially if personal protective clothing is not adequately worn. After ignition probably from an open flame, electric malfunction, cooking, cigarette or intentional activities to set fire, the severity of the same depends on the availability of fuel which now becomes the source of heat and radiation. For instance where an organization encourages the existence of a bigger amount of paperwork, print material, untreated furniture for fire resistance, careless or improper storage of explosive and flammable gases and liquids, then there are higher chances of sources of heat to be derived from these materials. It has been noted with concern that such kinds of fuels are responsible for the faster spread of fires not only in the building of origin but also to other neighboring buildings.

Concerning sources of exposure, fire firefighters more often than not are faced with exposure to toxic chemicals, harmful dust, vapors and gases as well as molten substances. With regards to molten substances, the heat generated usually changes the state of certain equipment and tools, for instance, plastic chairs or furniture and metals such as lead melts. When firefighters tackle the fire from inside the burning building and they are not well protected, they are vulnerable to dangers associated with such substances. During a fire incident, the paints used in a building, chemicals stored either complete or incomplete combustion of substances such as linen, cotton and wool results in harmful dust, vapor and toxic gases.

Among the notable gases released include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, phosgene, chlorine, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide to mention but a few. The injuries associated with these sources are both internal and external. Gases that is toxic when they get into the respiratory tract cause instant death or serious long-term injuries to the body. On the same note, vapor, as well as harmful dust when they get in contact with human skin, causes abrasion destroying the skin.

When fire burns a building the power, especially from electricity or other sources, gets short-circuited resulting in electric shocks. In situations where water tanks link, then the problem is aggravated making the lives of firefighters in great danger if the personal protective clothing is not adequate in protection. To ensure that the environment is safe from such a hazard the general rule calls for ensuring that the place is powered off. On the same note, there are various sources of sharp objects which may include stored equipment and tools. Similarly, fires might expose metals used during the construction of a building making it potentially dangerous for firefighters.

Part of the body injured

It would be rational to bring to light the body parts that get injured during fire fighting. It has been shown that about 30.0% of firefighters’ injuries for instance in 2004 included both upper and lower extremities which included the torso, arms and hands as well as legs and feet. When considering the shoulder region and the head, injuries in these areas contributed to about 20.0% of all injuries. It is worth noting that all parts of a firefighter body are vulnerable to injuries. In 2004 for instance upper extremities, lower extremities, head areas, neck throat and shoulder, multiple body parts, thorax, internal, spine, abdomen, pelvis and hip area had the following percentages of injuries respectively, 16%, 15%, 12%, 8%, 6%, 5.6%, 5.5%, 3%, 2.7% and 2.3%. Among the causes of injuries include overextension or strain, exposure to hazards, contact with objects, slipping or tripping, falling, struck or assaulted by individual/animal or objects and finally jumping.

Occupational hazards and PPE for firefighter

Introduction to occupational hazards and PPE

This section will critically evaluate the various occupational hazards firefighters are exposed to. On the same note, the personal protective equipment used by firefighters in order to minimize the hazards will be evaluated. In addition, the specifications, as well as the standards for PPE for firefighters, are also be given a focus. However, this section will not discuss PPE for incidences of special nature. As noted in the previous section, the safety of firefighters is of the essence in ensuring that they are at their best to execute their duties. One major way to enhance their safety is with the use of PPE (Rasbash, et al., 2004). As if this was not enough it was deemed appropriate by the relevant authorities that certain standards and specifications be adhered to to ensure that the equipment manufactured is up to standard to shield firefighters from any potential harm. It is in this section that all relevant PPE for firefighters will be discussed in details-their components and standards.

Specification and standards of PPE for firefighters

Despite the fact that hazards vary from one workplace to another, there are certain agreed standards that guide the manufacture and choice of PPE. For a PPE to be considered complete it opts to provide protection to the human head, eyes, face, neck hands, arms, legs, feet as well as the entire body. For this reason, various standards have been developed to help guide how PPE for various body sections is developed. It is important to recall here that the whole idea of suppressing fire is usually characterized by a hostile environment causing potential injuries to firefighters. Similarly, although deaths related to fire as well as fire incidences have reduced over the past decade it is sad to note that injuries encountered by firefighters have remained constant. This is what forms the basis for coming up with specifications as well as standards to help reverse the trend. With the passage of time, it is evident that some specifications as well as standards used as benchmarks have lost the test of time and need to be replaced. It is important to acknowledge that developing a new set of standards is typically a daunting task; on the same note international acceptance of the same takes time (Rich, 2006).

In general terms, there are broadly three specifications that need to be made by manufacturers of PPE; manufacturing equipment that has three layers, outer shell, moisture barrier and thermal barrier. For the outer shell, the material to be used should be able to withstand high temperatures and for the hands and feet or leg, PPE be capable of not only preventing the mentioned parts from heat but also sharp objects. The middle layers opt to be made up of material capable of preventing water from soaking the wearer. Additionally, it should also help in ensuring that heat does not get to the wearer.

The purpose of the third layer is to exclusively protect the wearer from radiation and flames from the fire. From these points, it is apparent that four major requirements have been brought forth with the aim of covering heat transfer through radiation or flames and resistance to water passage as well as resistance to water vapor. Thinking in the same line the construction of PPE concepts are; to offer wearers thermal insulation via layering of prescribed material, providing firefighters with equipment that are resistant to the flame by using synthetic materials and finally provide wearers with protection from the impact of falling as well as other objects via the use of materials that are synthetic.

To ensure that organizations comply with the PPE there are standards that require employees to provide their workers with PPE which includes respiratory equipment. It is a requirement for each and every employee who must use PPE to be provided with a set of the same. Ideally, the PPE include; an impact-resistant helmet having an inbuilt visor a torch and safety goggles, a pair of the flash hood that are flame and heat resistant, a pair of tunic and over trousers also flame and heat resistant, gloves that are resistant to flames and heat as well as puncture usually lined with Kevlar and finally boots having steel toe caps and sole plates. The boots are either made of rubber or leather. Failure of an employee to avail of this equipment is usually considered a violation of laid down rules.

It is has been noted that providing workers with all the necessary PPE is not sufficient. This thus called for a standard that required employers to have in place mechanisms or strategies to train employees on how to use and maintain the equipment to enhance their safety. Additionally, standards require that workers are adequately trained on issues relating to fire hazards. Among the various choices provided for in training, employees include instituting a training program, imposing a compliance duty that governs each worker. Failure to do this is seen as a violation of the standard.

Other standards call for proper maintenance of the PPE; ideally, organizations are advised to strictly adhere to the recommendations of the manufacturers especially with regards to keeping the equipment clean ready for use when they are needed. On the same note, any organization is responsible for ensuring that the PPE is durable, fits wearers snugly and does not interfere with the wearer’s movement. Additionally PPE deemed defective should at no time be used. Similarly, the equipment needs to be stored in the most desirable place usually cool and dry free from dust. In the event that a worker provides his/her own PPE, it is the responsibility of the organization or company to ensure that the same adequately meets the set standards and can offer desired protection from workplace hazards.

According to Rich, 2006 the new standard EN 469:2005 covers the following sections; levels of performance, sizing, practice performance testing, sampling and pre-treatment, visibility and whole garment testing. With regards to performance levels, there are two levels of performance with prescribed test methods for clauses relating to heat transfer flame and radiation, resistance to water penetration as well as water vapor resistance.

PPE components and standards

From the definition of personal protective equipment, it is evident that the term constitutes various components. It would be wise for all these components to be mentioned, they include; helmet, hand-light, SCBA, hearing protection, eye protection, protective coats, protective hood, protective trousers, fire-fighting boots, extrication gloves and fire-fighting gloves.

Head hazards

In situations where firefighters are in confrontation with fire, their heads are potentially at risk from fire flames and radiation. Similarly, there are possibilities that falling objects, as well as sharp objects, might injure them. It is worth noting that a head injury can make an employee be permanently impaired or even lose his/her life. Therefore wearing a safety helmet has been deemed to be one of the steps to enhance head safety. This plays a major role in ensuring that burn hazards, as well as electric shocks, do not affect the wearer. It is obvious that firefighters in the line with their duties will experience at least one or a combination of objects falling from above them, possibilities of bumping their heads into fixed static objects and accidental contact of their heads with electric shocks.

It is a requirement that the helmet is resistant to penetration of objects, be able to effectively absorb shocks from blows, be able to resist moisture, have a higher ability to tolerate very high temperatures and finally bear succinct instructions that explain how one can adjust as well as replace suspensions and headbands. In the strictest sense helmets opt to have as an outer shell that is very hard worth a shock-absorbing lining made up of headband and straps suspending the shell from 1 to 1.25 inches from the head. Such a design was to facilitate shock absorption as well as enhance ventilation. “Protective headgear must meet ANSI Standard Z89.1-1986 (Protective Headgear for Industrial Workers) or provide an equivalent level of protection” (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011; p. 165)

The three major classes of helmets are class A, B and C. according to OSHA standards, there is a need to ensure that the size of the helmet is appropriate. In addition to protecting the head, the equipment comes with earmuffs, glasses, face shields as well as mounted light and optimal brims all playing a role in trying to protect not only the head but also the face. As suggested by Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011 there is a need to carry out periodic cleaning and inspection to ensure the longevity of the equipment. Faulty helmets should at no time be used and no modification whatsoever should be done on the equipment for instance drilling holes painting as well as applying labels.

Eye and face hazards

Human eyes and face are significant especially when carrying out such activities as fire-fighting; when normal functioning is affected then judgments might be wrong. Concerning the various hazards to the human face and eyes, heat flames and radiations pose the greatest dangers. Smoke which is part of fire may irritate the eye or even make firefighters unable to clearly see. There is also a possibility that when some substances are burnt they fall and produce dust that may result in problems in visualization as well as respiration. Additionally, the face and the eye may be affected by electric shocks. Lastly, falling objects may get in contact with the eye leading to serious injuries.

For that reason, there are two major protective equipment for the face and the eyes; a protective hood and goggles. The flash hood is worn to help protect the face and the neck of the wearer from radiation and flames from the fire. It is usually supplied in a one-fit size and it is a soft durable put-on together with other fire protection kits. The material used to manufacture hoods should have the ability to resist radiation. OSHA standards are clear on how to store the equipment after use and after cleaning. Defective ones should at no time be worn. Eye protection equipment comes in various forms for instances safety goggles and glasses, helmet shields among others. It is worth noting that the latter is only secondary eye protection equipment. The equipment opts to meet the ANSI specifications, be clean and have no scratches and should be always carried by firefighters (Watts & Hall, 2002).

Hand hazard

In situations where engineering methods have failed to ensure removal or elimination of hazards to workers there use of PPE is strongly advised. Among the possible hazards to firefighters include exposure to harmful chemicals and gases that can be absorbed, chemical or thermal burns, electrical shocks, bruises, abrasion, fractures as well as punctures from either static or falling objects. The most appropriate PPE for the hand and arms include gloves, finger guard as well as elbow-length gloves. The PPE should be able to withstand high temperatures, resistant to penetration of radiations, ability to protect the hand from dust. Additionally, leather canvas or metal mesh gloves should be able to provide the wearers with resistance to abrasion as well as punctures. Apart from all these attributes, the gloves opt to allow the wearer to freely move his/her hands while carrying out his/her tasks.

It has been recommended that there should be a thorough inspection of gloves before they are used. Ensuring that the equipment is not torn or is ineffective will help enhance the principle of safety in the workplace. Inspection will help the authorities to establish whether gloves have cuts or are torn. Those that have lost their color opt not to be reused. When contemplating whether or not to reuse such equipment the thoughts ought to be guided by the duration of exposure, the temperatures among other attributes (Norman, 2005).

Feet and legs hazards

During fire incidences, firefighters’ legs and feet face various hazards; among them include electrical shocks, fire flames and radiations, injuries from falling objects, hitting static objects, penetration of sharp objects, liquid dust and chemicals. Ideally, foot and leg protective equipment are worn in situations where electrical hazards are well pronounced, there is the possibility of molten metals that might splash to firefighters’ legs, there are possibilities of rolling objects and finally the presence of sharp objects is inevitable. Generally, footwear should protect the feet as well as the legs from flames, heat radiation, electric shocks, moisture, shock from rolling objects as well as protection from abrasion and prick from sharp objects.

Boots should be able to meet the minimum standards of compression as well as impact performance as provided in ANSI-Z41-1991. The two major types of fire boots are leather and rubber. The former is made up of leather in the upper part and has a synthetic sole as well as a heel. In addition, it has steel toecaps which help in protecting against drop hazards and a steel midsole that offers protection against sharp objects (Rich, 2006). The rubber one has a similar function, however, it provides further protection since its heel and sole are retardant to flame, heat and oil. There is a need to closely examine the equipment before use. This will help determine those that are defective thus safeguarding the safety of the wearers.

Respiratory hazard and protection

Considering the work done by firefighters it is not enough to provide them with all other protective clothing without adequately considering the respiratory bit of their protection. In situations where fire breaks out it is apparent that there are several hazards that will negatively impact the firefighter’s ability to breathe comfortably vital for the normal functioning of the body. Smoke is one of the potential hazards faced by firefighters (Rasbash, et al., 2004). Most smoke contains suspended particles of carbon, tar as well as dust. In addition, smoke offers a location for condensation of gases, when inhaled smoke and their constituent are very irritating and when it contains poisonous gases it might lead to death.

There is also the possibility of the firefighters to filter in through the nasal hair and mucus membrane larger particles of smoke. Additionally higher temperatures cause rapid inhalation causing hypotension, the possibility of pneumonia, edema in the lungs as well as asphyxiation. It is also noted that they also face hazards from toxic chemicals. Most of the toxic gases enter directly into the lungs, may pass through the bloodstream impairing the ability of the body to transport oxygen to body cells, tissues and organs.

It is important to note that the hazard usually depends on how severe the combustion is the rate of heating and oxygen concentration. Among the signs or symptoms of deficiency of oxygen are faster breathing, muscular impairment, dizziness, unconsciousness and ultimately death. The major types of toxic gases when fighting fire include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, phosgene, chlorine, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide among others.

In order to address the various issues/hazards related to respiration when fighting the fire, relevant authorities have come up with various tools to curb the problem. The various types of this equipment include open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), open circuit supplied air breathing apparatus (SABA), closed-circuit breathing apparatus (re-breathers). However of interest here is the first one, SCBA which is the most common type of respiratory protection used together with an air hose. With this equipment, the wearer is provided with compressed breathing air usually from a cylinder that is carried on the back. The exhaled air is released into the atmosphere. With the advent of technology, there have been efforts in ensuring that the cylinder is not bulky. It has also been possible to have in place mechanisms whereby in case a firefighter is motionless or running out of compressed air, then the same information is conveyed to the relevant authority for further action (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011).

Full body hazards and protection

Generally speaking, all the fore mentioned hazards for instance dust, smoke, chemicals, gases, molten metals, electric shocks, radiation and flames from a fire, falling or rolling objects to mention but a few are hazardous to the body of firefighters. For that matter protection of the human body in situations where all engineering methods failed to eliminate or minimize hazards then calls for the full wearing of PPE to help firefighters be safer while actively accomplishing their mandate.

It is worth mentioning here that it is the responsibility of the employers to provide firefighters with PPE to be worn on the specific body parts vulnerable to injuries. Among the common hazards that firefighters face generally falls in three main categories; extreme temperatures, electric shocks and injuries from objects either static or in motion (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

For firefighters, the major examples of protective clothing that help shield the entire body include full body suits, coveralls, vests, jackets and aprons. It is worth noting that all these PPE are manufactured with certain standards to help protect the body against certain harms. Examples of the material used to make these clothing result to the following types of protective clothing; paper-like fiber mainly made to protect the human body from splashes as well as dust which is evident in fighting fires, treated wool and cotton made to withstand high temperatures hence protecting human body from flames and radiations, it is comfortable protecting the body from dust, abrasion, as well as rough irritating areas, similarly firefighter at certain times, are needed to handle rough, heavy and sharp objects that can potentially cause cuts and abrasion a duck which is woven cotton accomplish human protection against such hazards (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

Additionally, leather materials especially jackets and aprons protect firefighters against fire flames and radiation, lastly, rubber or neoprene, as well as plastic material, protect the body of firefighters against certain chemicals and gases from entering the human body (Rasbash, et al., 2004).

Problems and difficulties with PPE

The benefits of wearing PPE by firefighters are numerous for instance they help protect the wearers from fire, smoke, electric shocks, punctures from sharp objects, molten metals as well as providing the security of visibility as well as the accessibility of various tools. For instance, some of the clothing has several pockets where extra tools might be kept for example extra gloves, radio, flashlights among others. However, it has been shown that using PPE does not offer the ultimate desired protection and might lead to serious injuries or provide less protection. For that matter, it is rational to have such points in mind (Delmar, 2004).

Problems related to PPE

The major problems related to PPE include the incorrect fit of the equipment. This is a very serious issue; when the equipment is either too big or too small for the wearer there are a number of problems that might arise. One the wearer will be uncomfortable in such equipment and might take time in adjusting the same losing concentration while dealing with a fire-out break. This will definitely lead to serious injuries or even death having in mind that time is of the essence when fighting the fire. Their movement might also be negatively affected by incorrect fitting PPE. On the same line of thinking problems associated with the use of wrong PPE, damaged ones, poorly maintained ones, as well as the use of inconsistent PPE, have the same consequences as those previously mentioned. In addition, the same will not provide the wearers with the desired protection as intended by the manufacturers (Carl & Murnane, 2008).

Another serious problem with PPE when it comes to comfort is with regards to temperatures extremes. With this, there are several associated hazards for instance the wearer will suffer from heat, physical as well as psychological stress. It is no doubt that the protective clothing is heavy and will not allow firefighters to feel free air circulating over their bodies. The problem is that the use of structural personal protective clothing and equipment for fire suppression work increases the potential for physiological stress and heat-related injuries to the firefighter (Austin & Wang, 2001).

Additionally, the majority, when firefighters are trained on proper use as well as maintenance of PPE, whenever they put them on a greater proportion, get the false impression that they are fully protected from the various fire-related hazards. For that matter, they usually go to the extreme in trying to execute their duties. There have been several incidences where firefighters gained confidence and went ahead to fight the fire and save lives as well as properties in the most daring scenarios. Although there are other explanations of increased firefighter deaths and injuries I bet this explains it very well.

Similarly, in situations where the equipment is not well cleaned and stored, there are higher chances of such equipment when used by a different firefighter to contact some health complication. For instance when an individual who used a certain PPE had skin disease or other types of contagious illnesses, when the same is not adequately cleaned then a second wearer of such equipment will suffer from such illnesses (Norman, 2005). This has been raised severally by employees. It is also worth remembering that PPE only protects those who have fully worn the same. There are instances where some employees might not be able to wear certain PPE on medical grounds. Whenever in such a situation and there are no alternatives of the equipment in question, then such an employee is vulnerable to the various risks posed in the event of a fire outbreak (Rich, 2006).

On the same note, despite the fact that efforts have been put in place to help manufacturers develop PPE that is light and less cumbersome, there are reported cases that employees are uncomfortable with the whole set of equipment. For instance, when using water to fight the fire, the inner middle layer that protects the body from moisture usually absorbs water making the clothing heavier. The results of such an event include impeding movement as well as a maneuver of the wearer is trying to successfully accomplish their duties. In extreme conditions such weight coupled with those of other tools in pants’ as well as coats pocket and the SCBA bag may lead to the wearer getting serious injuries or even death when trapped since he/she can get out of a dangerous area Austin & Wang, 2001).

It is common knowledge that there are cases where the technology may fail; the results of any technical hiccup are usually far from human imagination. Although it has not been reported, imagine a situation where the alarm system is installed on SCBA to help alert the team outside the affected area that a firefighter is either running out of the compressed air or is motionless, at the end fatalities may be recorded. Similarly, some of the equipment putting the wearers in danger has also raised concern (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011). For instance, when the rescue belts and other suspending equipment are not well stuck in their correct position, they might trigger an object to fall and depending on its weight may seriously injure or even kill the wearer. On the same line of thinking there are cases where firefighters got trapped in a fire thanks to such equipment (Delmar, 2004).

Lastly, it has been shown that the breathing apparatus, the SCBA do have some serious issues. For instance, although it has been made to be in line with the shape of the wearers back, it brings with it the issue of obstruction when trying to move within a region that is small. Apparently, this contributes to the issue of being trapped in hazardous regions when fighting fires. This has a significant negative effect on maximum work capacity.

Similarly, it has been shown that there is some SCBA equipment that allows passage of particles during inhalation, this enters the human lungs causing the serious respiratory problem either instantly or later in life. Additionally, all the SCBA have a certain limit of compressed air it can contain. Typically the container can sustain a firefighter for about 30 minutes, what this means is that in case the fire is so fierce that the time to be spent while fighting it exceeds 30 minutes then the life of a firefighter is in danger if the alarm system fails to respond adequately.

PPE and training

Introduction to PPE and training

It is no doubt that information is power. Having in mind that the whole profession of bringing down huge fires and saving lives as well as property is extremely a dangerous affair it would be rational to provide firefighters with enough knowledge on all aspects surrounding fires. The benefits accrued from such efforts can only be seen in the end; fewer deaths for firefighters as well as reduced personal injuries (Carl & Murnane, 2008). In general, the relevant department opts to try their best in trying to reduce known hazards and risks, the skills and knowledge from such training are of paramount importance in enhancing personal safety, there is a need for a firefighter to regularly and continuously seek to update their skills and knowledge with regards to their profession and finally, adherence to manufactures instructions on how operations of all PPE is important.

It is a requirement that employers should use whatever means at their disposal to ensure that their workers are trained on at least these areas; types of hazards, when PPE is necessary, what kind of PPE to use in the event a certain hazard occurs, putting on, taking off, adjusting as well as wearing of PPE, the limitation of PPE and more importantly how to take proper care, maintenance, storage as well as disposing of those that can no longer be reused (Rich, 2006). To appreciate the training, employers through the relevant authorities for instance site managers opt to be sure that employees are in a position to demonstrate that they have understood the training as well as show that they can properly use PPE. Considering the fact that there is always new technology with the passage of time, the addition of new hazards and that it is human nature to forget things, organizations are reminded to have in place strategies to retrain their employees on various issues related to PPE. Usually, training is done prior to the use of PPE.

Training requirements

According to Carl & Murnane, 2008; p.28 “firefighters who are required to wear PPE shall receive training in the proper use, fit and care of Personal protective equipment” This training shall occur before the use of PPE. This training shall include, but not necessarily be limited to, the following areas:

• Hazards that the chosen PPE can help protect against
• Proper selection of PPE considering the fact of time, type and when to use
• How to properly put on, adjust and put off
• Limitations of the PPE
• How to properly dispose PPE in case it is not possible to reuse
• Proper maintenance of PPE
• The length of the useful life of the PPE
• Proper use of PPE
• How to thoroughly inspect PPE so that defective or those damaged are removed and not used till repaired if they are serviceable.
• When to replace worn-out PPE

After accomplishing all these, it is very important that all the activities covered in training, as well as retraining, are documented. It should be put in writing that each and every employee at risk of certain hazards has undergone and understood the training offered. In the document, the attributed captures include names of the employees, dates of training and subjects of training. In a situation where the federal government carries out an unannounced compliance check, an organization that has successfully done this will be at peace and thus be in good books with the government and probably the general public, employees as well as their customers Maine Municipal Association Risk Management Services, (2005).

PPE and responsibilities

Introduction to PPE responsibility

OSHA has made it very clear that in situations where engineering methods failed to eliminate or reduce workplace hazards, employees should be provided with effective PPE. Ideally, the provision of PPE has been deemed as the final step in trying to defend workers from workplace hazards (Lee & Meyer, 2000). With the quest of trying to ensure that firefighters are safeguarded from workplace hazards, each and every one of the following stakeholders has certain responsibilities; employees, supervisors, department of fire or safety and finally environmental health and safety (Banauch & Alleyne, 2003).

Responsibilities of supervisors

Supervisors’ are the immediate bosses to employees. One major duty they have to perform is to carry out workplace hazard assessments that might be faced by firefighters. The supervisor is to establish when it is appropriate to carry out such an assessment for instance when there is a change in employees’ work environment. Other sets of their responsibilities include:

• Carrying out a reassessment of hazards whenever deemed fit
• Properly maintaining hazard assessment as well as analysis records in good shape
• Offer workers with appropriate PPE as spelled by the hazard assessment
• Ensuring that workers are putting on PPE when on duty
• Ensuring that workers have completed all required medical examinations before using PPE
• Be responsible for making sure that all PPE is clean, reliable and in good shape before being allocated to employees

Responsibilities of safety department/unit

It is this unit that is bestowed with the responsibility of developing as well as administration of PPE program. Similarly, through the employers, it is this unit that provides workers with PPE at no cost. Asides from buying the equipment, the department is to carry out fit testing, medical examination, meet the cost of training as well as materials to be used in training and servicing and maintain the equipment (Delmar, 2004). Additionally, the unit is bestowed with the responsibility of keeping records with regards to their compliance to the standards among other issues. Another set of responsibilities the department should perform include:

• Offering technical assistance to supervisors when carrying out hazard assessment, training as well fostering proper use, care,maintenance as well as storage of PPE
• Provide supervisors with guidance during selection as well as purchasing of PPE
• Review, update as well as evaluate how successful and effective the organization PPE program(s) are

Responsibilities of Environmental Health and Safety

The body is responsible for providing organizations with assistance with regards to PPE only on request. Their assistance might be in assessing or performing hazard assessment, reviewing hazard assessment together with the company’s supervisors as well as offering guidance in choosing the right PPE for employees. Additionally, the body will help supervisors in training on PPE as well as evaluate and monitor compliance with the set standards of PPE. Any other kind of assistance sort after by an organization will be addressed by Environmental Health and Safety Unit.

Employees’ (firefighters) responsibilities

Since they are the ones who will use the equipment in carrying out their duties and tasks, they are responsible for the following:

• Wear PPE when on duty
• Avail themselves in any training event
• Offer proper care, cleaning, maintenance as well as storage of PPE
• Make their supervisors aware of the desire to repair or replace defective PPE
• Report to supervisors any health problem when using PPE
• Carry out a thorough inspection of PPE before using

Inspection and storage of PPE

Introduction to PPE and responsibility

It has been noted that firefighter has a major role in trying to enhance a safer working environment. For that matter, they are to inspect all the PPE they are provided with before use. As previously noted various standards call upon rejection of defective equipment and the same options to be replaced with immediate effect while those that can be repaired the same should be done on time. Similarly to ensure the longevity of the equipment, there is a need to store (Banauch & Alleyne, 2003)

Inspection

The most important part in trying to ensure that the workers are using the PPE in a correct manner and that the same are kept in accordance with the standards as well as recommendations of the manufacturers calls for thorough inspection from the relevant stakeholders. From the lowest level, the firefighters or wearers of PPE are the first group of individuals to closely examine whether the equipment they are provided with is up to standard and will provide them adequate protection. Strictly speaking, after carrying out fire hazard assessment it is the responsibility of the organization in conjunction with relevant bodies to purchase PPE for their workers (Carl & Murnane, 2008).

Once this is accomplished there is a need to regularly check if all the equipment bought is in-store and in good condition. Whenever defective ones are found necessary steps need to be taken for instance replacing them with new ones. Similarly for the federal government to ensure that organizations are in compliance with provisions guiding employees’ protection while in their place of work, they need to carry out regular inspections to not only ensure that the organization has proper PPE but the same is in good conditions.

Maintenance

It is no doubt that proper maintenance of personal protective equipment plays a major role in ensuring that their integrity is not compromised and that they can last longer. To accomplish this, PPE shall be checked before each use and shall be regularly cleaned, maintained, repaired (unless disposable) and replaced in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. In addition at no time should any modification be done on PPE for instance painting, labeling or drilling holes.

According to various standards especially from OSHA and manufacturers of PPE repairs on such equipment need to be carried out with individuals certified by such bodies. When cleaning the equipment there is a need to adhere to the set standards of doing the same, for instance, when cleaning eye protection equipment wiping them with a paper towel they will be scratched rendering them useless. This not only makes the whole activity of offering employees PPE expensive but also puts them at risk if such equipment is used (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

Storage

Another important issue when it comes to the proper maintenance of PPE is proper storage. Usually, instructions on how to store given personal protective equipment are fully provided by the manufacturers. There are cases whereby specific storage receptacles for PPE not in use may be required to prevent contamination and keep PPE clean. Generally speaking manufacturers especially those who make PPE used by firefighter recommend that such equipment be stored in cool places free from moisture, direct sunlight, dust, chemicals as well as physical objects, for instance, sharp items. On the same note “eye protection, respirators, and hearing protection require clean dust-tight containers” (Watts & Hall, 2002; pp.126)

Conclusion and recommendations

From the review of the role of PPE, a number of issues come to light. It is evident that the entire profession of fire-fighting is dangerous. Considering this, efforts have been made to help reduce the number of death and injuries. There has been a tremendous and steady effort by manufacturers to come up with PPE that is advanced and fits the scenario surrounding fire fighting. The research paper tackled issues relating to characteristics of fire, hazard assessment for firefighters, firefighters death and injuries of Australia compared to that of the US, occupational hazards and PPE for firefighters, problems and difficulties associated with PPE, PPPE training and responsibilities and finally inspection and storage of PPE (Kipp & Loflin, 2001).

The workplace hazard assessment should be used as a starting point for the selection of the PPE required for any given hazardous situation and an aid to the minimization of risk. Final selections should be based on a specific review of the work task, the duration of the task, the risk of injury during the task, the consequences of any exposure to an injurious, any related hazards material safety data sheet, and any relevant regulatory or national consensus standard exposure limits (Jin, 2006).

Additionally:

• There is a need for regular medical examination as well as physical fitness for firefighters
• The organization also need to adopt and implement an incident management system
• Employers should have in place training programs that are regularly evaluated to test if they are effective which will be used to gauge if retraining is necessary
• Employers are obliged to provide workers with PPE and ensure that they are capable of putting them on properly, adjusting and taking off.

Reference

Austin, C. & Wang, D. (2001). Characterization of volatile organic compounds in smoke at municipal structural fires. J Toxicol Environ Health, 63(6): 437-58.

Banauch, G. & Alleyne, D. (2003). “Persistent hyperactivity and reactive airway dysfunction in firefighters at the World Trade Centre.” Am J Respir Crit Care Med 168(1): 54-62.

Carl, D. & Murnane, L. (2008). Essentials of Fire Fighting and Fire Department Operations with CD. New York: Prentice-Hall.

Delmar, T. (2004).The Firefighter’s Handbook: Essentials of Fire Fighting and Emergency Response. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Publishers.

Fahy, F., LeBlanc, J. & Molis, P. (2011). Firefighter fatalities in the United States 2010. NFPA Fire Analysis and Research, Quincy, MA 2, 2(5): 1-32.

Hasenmeier, P. (2008). The History of firefighter Personal Protective Equipment. Web.

Jin, T. (2006). Visibility through Fire Smoke, Report of Fire Research Institute of Japan, 2, (33): 12-18.

Kipp, J. & Loflin, M. (2001). Emergency incident risk management: a safety and health perspective. Netherlands: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Klaene, B. (2007). Structural Fire-fighting: Strategies and Tactics. London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Lee, A., & Meyer, R. (2000). Escape Through Time. NOVA Online. Web.

Leigh B.; Holden, A. & Alistair M. (2006). Remote sensing techniques to assess active fire characteristics and post-fire effects. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 3(15):319-­345.

MacCollum, D. (2006). Construction Safety Engineering Principles: Designing and Managing Safer Job Sites. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Maine Municipal Association Risk Management Services, (2005). Best Practices Guide. New York: Springer.

Norman, J. (2005). Fire Officer’s Handbook of Tactics. New York: Fire Engineering Books & Videos

Quincy, M. (2006). SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire Protection, National Fire Protection Association.

Rasbash, D. Ramachandran, B., Kandola, J., Watts, Jr. & Law, M. (2004). Evaluation of Fire Safety for Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). London: John Wiley.

Rich, I. (2006). EN 469:2005; The new PPE standard and what it means for firefighters. Web.

Tomecek, D. & Smeaton, B. (2004). Improving Fire Prevention through Fire Hazards Analysis. Web.

Watts, J. &. Hall, J. (2002). Introduction to Fire Risk Assessment, Section 5, Chapter 1, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. NFPA, Quincy MA.

Watts, J. (2003). Assessing Life Safety in Buildings, Section 13, Chapter 1, Fire Protection Handbook. NFPA, Quincy MA.