The main influence on the development of the political life of Western countries in the second period of New History was the French Revolution, which put forward the ideas of freedom, equality, and fraternity. It challenged the dominance of the “old order” in the countries of continental Europe, which was based on absolutism, the division into estates, and various forms of dependence of subjects on the state (Graaf et al., 2019). Gradually, in Western countries, the foundations of the rule of law state, which was based on the principles of political freedoms, and freedom of enterprise (Graaf et al., 2019). The formation of the foundations of democracy took place with the election of government bodies, general voting, and the division of power into legislative, executive, and judicial. The Congress of Vienna created the “Holy Alliance” to preserve stability and maintain peace in Europe (Graaf et al., 2019). In this sense, the union is a historical prototype of future international organizations – the League of Nations and the United Nations. Thus, The French Revolution period greatly influenced the West’s society and culture, changing the economic, political, and social views.
In Western countries, the beginning of the formation of industrial society was associated with the deployment of the Industrial Revolution, which gradually spread across Europe. In industry, it caused the transition from manufactory production, based on the muscular work of humans and animals, to machine factory production, in which energy could be obtained by burning coal and oil (Smith, 2014). The result was a sharp increase in labor productivity (Smith, 2014). New industrial production developed based on the free competition when producers of goods fought with each other for better conditions for producing and selling goods.
Free competition was the driving force of economic development and, at the same time, gave rise to its instability: periods of economic recovery alternated with economic crises. These were crises of overproduction when entrepreneurs seeking to make a profit produced more goods than demanded in the market. During the crisis, enterprises went bankrupt, and hundreds of thousands of employees were out of work (Smith, 2014). As a result, crises have given rise to numerous social protests and necessitated the search for ways to improve the existing economic system.
In the social life of Western industrial society, important entrepreneurs and hired workers mattered. Entrepreneurs who played a leading role in the economic life of society were interested in getting the opportunity to influence state politics by legitimate parliamentary methods (Smith, 2014). As a result, they advocated the elimination of the remnants of the “old order” and establishment of democratic foundations in the state’s life at the beginning of the XIX century. Wage workers in Western countries were a powerless and socially unprotected layer of industrial society. They sought to change their position; therefore, they participated in various forms of social protests. They also were among those who supported the calls of supporters of radicalism to change the existing order by force in a revolutionary way. The workers’ struggle for their rights has become one of the main factors determining the stability of society in Western countries.
Religion and the church occupied an important place in human life and culture in the West. However, unlike in previous times, the brutality of the religious struggle decreased. The understanding is gradually spreading in society that freedom of religion is one of the foundations of democracy. As a result of the Revolution, there was a significant spread of French culture (Stearns, 2021). After the Revolution, many French actively emigrated to other European countries, bringing their culture with them and contributing to its spread. The influx of French migrants to neighboring states led to creation of a legislative framework that controls immigration.
Before the French Revolution, absolutism in France reached its peak, but there have been important changes in the life of society. Power was so concentrated in the hands of the monarchs that even the nobles had practically no opportunity to influence the political situation (Stearns, 2021). In their regional possessions, their influence was very limited. As a result of the Revolution, vast lands were confiscated in favor of the state. In addition, the social mobility of the population has increased. Previously, many positions, such as judges and magistrates, were appointed from above. After the Revolution of 1789-1799, people began to choose candidates for these positions (Stearns, 2021). In general, French society has become more progressive and democratic.
Industrial development led to the creation of private banking houses. The intensification of railway construction led to the creation of private joint-stock banks. Their founders were banking houses and industrial firms, so the activities of banks had sectoral and regional specialization (Smith, 2014). England is becoming the most economically advanced country based on its early transition to capitalism and rapid development (Smith, 2014). In all countries, the improvement of the credit and banking system with its characteristics continued.
Thus, during the 19th century, the traditional estate system destroyed the division of society. A person’s place in it began to be determined by what he achieved through his own efforts. The French and Industrial Revolutions had a great impact on Europe and the New World. They led to the spread of French culture and the creation of laws governing immigration, as well as greatly influenced the social, political, and economical changes. The Revolution shaped politics, society, religion, and ideas, that significantly impacted Western countries’ overall development.
References
Graaf, B. de, Haan, I. de, & Vick, B. E. (2019). Securing Europe after Napoleon 1815 and the new European Security culture. Cambridge University Press.
Smith, A. (2014). The Wealth of Nations. CreateSpace.
Stearns, P. N. (2021). The Industrial Revolution in World History. Routledge.