Introduction
In ancient times, multiple philosophical schools may be observed. However, one of the most prominent is the Stoics. Once the concept was born, it became an extremely influential branch of the philosophical thought. Nowadays, it is still in use and rather popular among both thinkers and scientists. Why is it so? Not many of the old philosophical schools had means to resist the progress and survive through the development of science. Philosophy tries to explain the essence of the world and existence, but natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.) cope with this task much better. Some physicists say that nature speaks the language of mathematics, not philosophy. In the age of the scientific knowledge’s triumph, it may be of wonder that philosophy still exists at all. However, Stoicism does not contradict the physicists’ opinion. One needs to explain how it happens that it is still actual and referred to. In this work, it will be discussed how the Stoic branch was born and who created it. Its main concepts and their connection with the present day reality will be revealed.
Who, Where, and When: The Roots of Stoicism
What is called Stoicism? That is what the explanation should start with. Firstly, it is necessary to consider the common meaning of the word. Dictionaries explain stoical attitude to life as restraining one’s feelings and emotions. A stoic holds emotions at bay and always stays calm. This word was borrowed from the Ancient Greek language when outstanding thinkers of the Renaissance got acquainted with the works by Plutarch, Cicero, and Seneca.i
The latter three were the most prominent representatives of the original Stoical school. However, it was founded not by them but by Zeno of Citium in about 300 BC. Zeno and his disciples gathered in their special place in Athens and developed their thoughts into a solid philosophical conception.
The period around 300 BC in Greece is characterized by the blossom and thriving of the philosophical thought. Plato founded his famous Academy while Aristotle started his Lyceum.ii At the time, philosophy was closely connected with science to the extent that sometimes they became inseparable: philosophers practiced scientific studies while scientists philosophized. No wonder that the above-mentioned figures were engaged both in philosophy and science, natural and social.
Zeno’s concepts were so attractive that he managed to collect large audiences in his lectures. When he died, his ‘throne’ was taken by his loyal disciple Cleanthes and then, from the latter to Chrysippus. Later, the baton was passed on to the Romans, whose most significant representative of the Stoic philosophy was Cicero.iii In the next century, Stoicism found its highest peak in the work Meditations by Marcus Aurelius.
The Essence of Stoicism
This branch in its first two centuries of existence attracted lots of people from different society layers. It was so because the philosophy implied not only musings on nature and life: it was also a way of living. According to Sellars, the Stoics’ attitude to existence was grounded on three ‘whales’:
- ontology: this partly materialist idea presupposes that God exists in every material object in the world;
- epistemology: the philosophy admits the great importance of the scientific knowledge and self-education in natural sciences;
- ethics: the Stoics stated that virtue was the core of happy living, and all the other things were secondary and even unimportant; according to the concept, emotions are merely expressions of misunderstanding things.iv
Thus, the general purpose of the philosophical branch was to bring up a person who would be indifferent to minor everyday matters. As we see, the modern everyday-life definition of a stoic does not fully correspond to the initial meaning of the word and the phenomenon. It is, moreover, too superficial. This is because the ancient Stoic is a state of mind and soul while the modern everyday-life one concerns only the question of demonstrating emotions. Further on, ancient Stoic philosophers are close to the present-day popular concepts of transcendental meditation, self-knowledge, etc. For example, according to Yogi (the famous popularizer of transcendental meditation), God “manifests in different degrees and forms in the various strata of creation. Everything in creation is the manifestation of the unmanifested absolute personal Being, the omnipresent God”.v This concept perfectly corresponds to what Zeno and his school propagated.
After its foundation, stoicism became a wide-spread philosophy not only in Greece and Rome but also in Palestine and Syria. It was practiced as an actual attitude to life, which may be vividly illustrated by the example of Socrates.vi The philosopher was charged with blasphemy and corrupting the youth’s views on life. As a result, he was sentenced to death. Standing face to face with his prosecutors, he explained calmly that he did not care about the sentence and that injustice brings pain and sufferings only to those who practice it.
Stoic Ideas
To continue this line of discussion, the Hellenistic Stoics viewed God through the concept of cosmos. The two ideas are interconnected and interrelated.vii Firstly, the universe is, in its every particle, the creation of the Divine. Secondly, virtually everything in the world (or cosmos) is rational because it exists due to the unknown purpose that only God knows. That is why there is no use in resisting the inevitable. One should not try to understand the Supreme Being’s intentions but should rather live in harmony with the soul and nature, not paying much attention to minor circumstances.
Further on, it is necessary to observe the Stoics’ attitude to science. According to Salles, Seneca vividly expressed the conception of humans’ relations with the world around.viii Like many other Stoics, Seneca considered the question if to live or not to live at all. He and many other scholars shared the conception that during life, one needs to explore as much knowledge as possible in such natural sciences as physics, botany, geography, etc. For example, he explained that physics is worth studying as it corresponds to the human nature.
The conception of time is also important to view. The ancient Stoics realized that humans have too little time to enjoy life.ix They are forced to spend much of it on minor matters like work and communication. The true wisdom consists in making philosophy not merely a leisure mental activity but the cure that brings about harmony. That is why there is a need for the individual to learn more about the world all the time. Thus, studying sciences is a significant motive in the whole Stoic conception.
As it has already been demonstrated, the Stoics view the world as a system created and operated by one Being. According to Sharples, this philosophical concept admits that the human soul is subject to the same rules as all the other objects and phenomena in the world.x It means that if one wants to understand his/her own soul movements and aspirations, one needs to try to realize how nature functions. In this way, the Stoics explain why science studies are important. Through them, one understands not only the surrounding world but also the essence of oneself as a manifestation of God. Thus, Stoicism is closely connected not only with theology but also with the modern cosmology based on physics. It is an interdisciplinary philosophical concept.
Conclusion
As for the present day, this philosophy is not less applicable to life than it was in ancient times. It may help not to lose one’s own identity, cope with difficulties successfully, gain scientific knowledge about the world around and oneself, and enjoy life despite its hardships. Moreover, Stoicism is an instrument that may be used to achieve the understanding of the concept of God as Nature and the laws of its functioning and interconnection.
To conclude, Stoicism is a philosophy that is based on three basic concepts. The first one states that everything in the world is interconnected and has a universal reason. The second one implies the significance of studying sciences for understanding the essence of the universe. The third one states that the individual should concentrate on getting as close as possible to the ‘core’ of the existence, not concentrating on minor everyday matters. The philosophy is not only a way of thinking but more a way of life.
- Sellars, p. 1.
- Sellars, p. 1.
- Sellars, p. 2.
- Sellars, p. 3.
- Yogi, p. 268.
- Sellars, p. 40.
- Salles, p. I.
- Salles, p. XII.
- Salles, p. XX.
- Sharples, p. 27.
Works Cited
Salles, Ricardo. Introduction: God and Cosmos in Stoicism. God and Cosmos in Stoicism, edited by Ricardo Salles, Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. I-XXX.
Sellars, John. Stoicism. Routledge, 2006.
Sharples, Robert William. Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy. Routledge, 2014.
Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh. Science of Being and Art of Living: Transcendental Meditation. Signet, 1988.