Introduction
Egypt has long been a land of civilization fascination dating back thousands of years ago. It is architecture, culture and sites make it an astounding place to study.
Ancient Egypt was also known as Kemet i.e., ‘black land’ which was situated along the River Nile in the Nile valley. On either side of the Nile valley were deserts which differentiated Ancient Egypt as a land of the fertile flood plain. Egypt in the nineteenth century was in times of floods submerged in water making it appear sort of a long shallow lake. Causeways linked the villages in such areas. To the advantage of Egyptians in the ancient times, the floods carried with them silt, fertile soils, and minerals which when the flood receded lift rich thick mud that the people grew crops during October and November. By the time the next season of heavy rains set in, the plants would have ripened and little or no watering was needed. Perhaps the whole system was well planned by nature. On the hot summer days, the ground cracked thus naturally creating a mechanism of soil aeration which prevented waterlogging and disappropriate accumulation of salts. (Leek, 1973, Kemp, 1991).
The three major seasons of Akhet (inundation), Peret (growing), and Shemu (harvest) characterized the ancient Egyptian calendar. Although all seasons were naturally well-timed and appropriate the ancient Egyptians felt there was still much more they could do to improve. It is then that they began to build earthen banks that could trap the flood water so that farmers could release the water when irrigating their lands. The irrigation style was ingenuine i.e. water was raised mechanically to areas that were higher above the ground level of floods or to gardens and farms during the Shemu seasons so that crops in kitchen gardens got watered throughout the year.
Further, civilization in ancient Egypt led to a better irrigation technique that used drainage canals. This technique proved to be more efficient in transporting water to areas further afield. The canals were built of earthen locks which directed the waters to the high dam (Aswan). The drainage canals ensured that the excessive volumes of water were redirected to the river and let out gradually to where needed. In addition, the dams ensured that water never burst its banks to create destruction of people’s livelihoods. (Butzer, 1976).
Given the extent of development the ancient Egyptian’s had at such an early moment, one would imagine the impetus to step up this area would be strategic to the Egyptians. However apparently, there were no significant improvements beyond the canals, simply because the need to do so was absent. It appears that the whole idea of better farming and irrigation techniques was far from the idea of profit-making activity. The Egyptians did not engage in meaningful cultivation of cash crops for sale abroad in a bid to make profits. This is in contrast to modern times where a combination of fertile soil and water prompts thoughts of growing crops like cotton and sugar for sale abroad.
On a different note, the population in ancient Egypt was small. Actually, before the period of the late New Kingdom, its population stood at roughly four to five million people, by all means, a reasonable size in comparison to today’s population.
Food production and economy in ancient Egypt
The main economic activity in ancient Egypt was agriculture. This is because the harvest in Egypt was greater than that of areas surrounding Egypt. The urban dwellers thus took the opportunity to sell their produce totem at a price. This empowered Egypt in the economic, army, and food security aspects. There was no legal tender in ancient Egypt and goods were generally bartered for other goods mostly barley due to its ease of use. Trade was a crucial activity to Egyptians and the products were mainly agricultural although jewelry and precious stones were also traded. The main trade partners were countries along the red sea, the Mediterranean, and the Aegean Sea. The River Nile naturally irrigated the land so that the land was evergreen. The areas of crop growing in the Nile valley were usually moist therefore needed little if any irrigation. However, the areas in the upper valley needed constant irrigation thus the Egyptians built canals and dykes to direct water for irrigation to those areas. In those days building dams was a local and regional affair. In ancient Egypt, there lacked a machine of pumping waters to ground level especially in times when they had fallen below par. The only available machine was the Shaduj, which was a horizontal pole with a counterweight on one side and a bucket suspended on the other side pivoted at the center. This device was of a simple build. Today, the modern mechanism of lifting waters to ground level regulates the amounts of water that flow from the networked drainage canals.
In ancient Egypt, plowing was done using lightly built plows that were pushed by cows. Plowing was done to break the topsoil and not so much for turning the nutrients as the inundation had already done much of depositing the nutrients in the soil. During the plowing season, milk production decreased. The Egyptians also used hoes to prepare their land; a back-breaking task owing to the short handle design for their hoes. Planting was done manually by spreading the seeds in the fields. Pigs would then walk over to the field to sink the seeds into the soil. The seeds were then left to germinate and grow. Harvest time was a celebration. Song and dance characterized this period. The amount of harvest realized depended on the area that was covered by the flood. Usually, it was about 20000-34000km. Wheat production and maize crop disease like corn dearth were frequent and, in such occurrences, the yield was significantly reduced. Generally, Egypt enjoyed a surplus in food production. The surplus was either stored in granaries or exported to Rome ad Persia for trade. The Egyptian administration was hands-on in all aspects of food production right from assigning land to collecting taxes after harvest. Tax collectors were known to be very harsh and the peasants very stiff in paying taxes. Despite huge amounts of tax collected from citizens, the administrators did nothing to maintain the dykes and canals. This was one reason for low crop yield in times of low crop yield in times flow inundation. Also, the Egyptians faced problems of a constant raids by thieves and attacks by pests.
Emmer was an important crop to Egyptians although they stopped growing it after the Romans. Barley was also crucial for making bread and brewing beer. Other crops like wheat, flax, papyrus reeds, and castor plants were also grown for food consumption as well as few materials for making paper, ropes, and clothes among others.
In Mesopotamia, the Opium poppy was grown for commercial purposes in the Thebes area during the new kingdom. It was mostly sold by Phoenicians in North Africa and Southern Europe. (Kemp, 1994) The opium seeds were used to produce medicine in Egyptian times and oil was also extracted. They believed opium was a powerful painkiller. In the high areas where orchards, vineyards, and gardens were cultivated, the labor was intensive. This is because the land had to be watered by hand and the Nile was distanced. Additionally, the land needed fertilizing. The Egyptian farmers mainly kept doves and pigeons and used their dropping to fertilize the soil. A horticultural crop like cucumber, melon, lentils, beans, radishes, and lettuce also grew. Despite the labor-intensive nature of gardening and horticulture the yields were attractive and paid the farmers fairly well. Egyptians were not keen on eating and took a share of one meal a day. The staple food was meat from lamb, cows, and wild animals such as gazelles and antelopes. Given that Ancient Egypt was predominantly Muslim, pork was shunned. Fish was also shunned among upper-class Egyptians because of its offensive smell which resembled decaying flesh therefore only poor peasants took the delicacy. Vegetables and fruits from the agriculture-rich delta were also plentiful. Birds like geese and Wild fouls substituted other meats served with baked bread and wine. (Kemp, 1994).
Beer brewing and winemaking
The Egyptians in the period of the 5th dynasty had perfected the art of beer brewing. Beer brewing techniques involved baking loaves of wheat and barley and then submerging them in pots of water where they left to ferment a few days. Jars and wine vines were crafted by artisans to hold the contents. Of course, the vessels were both artistic as well as functional. The Ancient Egyptians were particularly experienced and had an expensive taste of food, architecture, dressing, and all. Wines in the old kingdom were mostly red while those of the middle kingdom was largely white. Irrespective of color, the taste was exquisite and cellars were built to hold the wines until a special occasion.
Sale of artifacts
Ancient Egypt was also active in art particularly in making functional artifacts with an aesthetic value. These artifacts proved to be very popular among the Egyptian pharaohs and they contracted the craftsmen to make for them and paid them handsomely. In addition, the artifacts were traded by the Egyptians as suitable gifts to kings and emperors from other countries. They remarked at how exquisite the works of art were that soon Egypt established itself as a major trader of artifacts in the Middle East. (Nicholson & Shaw, 2000).
Hunting and fishing
Fishing was also another economic activity in ancient Egypt. Although it was practiced on a small scale it went a long way in boosting the income of the peasants, laborers, and slaves. Pisciculture is also believed to have been practiced in ancient Egypt but also at a small scale. Pisciculture is the practice of rearing fish in artificial means mostly in a pond. Nonetheless, the river Nile also provided fishing ground for the peasants.
Hunting was also practiced as an economic activity although on a very trivial scale the kings and the individuals in the upper class as this was a luxury sport as well as among the poorest in society who saw wild animals as the means to secure decent food on their tables. This is because the poor had no land to rear their animals and neither the time to do so. Hunting, therefore, proved to be very crucial for their survival.
Manufacture
Egypt was a truly industrialized land (Mesopotamia and Indus valley) and they engaged in numerous manufacturing activities, for example, the papyrus papers used by the scribes to write administrative texts among other writings. These papers took enormous skill and time to prepare the process included stripping the pith of fresh green papyrus stems, pounding it to a flat sheet, and finally pressing it hanging out to dry. These papers were highly demanded by the scribes who used the papers to keep commercial records or labeling ownership to an object through seal imprint.
They also manufactured pieces of art and ceramics. In ancient Egypt, art was a cherished talent and even pharaohs demand attractive wooden or stone carving on is occasional basis. Ancient Egyptians were pioneers of the intensive use of stone in art. The crafts were top-of-the-range quality since so much expertise and time went into each piece. So important was the whole business of artifacts manufacturing that wood was imported from other countries. This also for the most part used perhaps due to an elegant look or because the raw material was in plenty.
Carpentry reached a glorified level late into the predynastic period and Thinite times. It may also be safe to assume that quality wood was rare hence the reason why pharaohs favored wooden art facts, whatever the reason archeological collections of artifacts. Whatever the reason, archeological collections of artifacts show that trees like cedar, cypress, ebony, oak, and fir were largely used for creating special pieces. These woods were mainly imported from abroad. Indigenous trees like fig, willow sycamore among others were also used although rarely.
Interestingly, carpentry techniques like concealed joints say mired, dovetailing, and halved were used in the predynastic times and are still used today. Another remarkable realization is that skills like veneering and manufacture of plywood were within the repertoire of the ancient Egyptian carpenter. Another function of arts in the old kingdom included the construction of boats using wood craftsmen would build rafts and boats to transport people and goods across the river Nile and the sea. For example, transporting stone from quarries in Upper Egypt to Sakkara a region in the south. The construction of boats took up to 30 days of hard work by laborers. The largest built vessel of the time was a hundred and three feet long and 50 feet wide.
The Egyptians also practiced the manufacture of linen cloth which they made from the flax plant and the cloth was used to tailor clothes for the kings. These clothes worn by the kings were tunics. The kings employed people to make their clothes and also manufacture linen materials. This was a favorite because of the rich texture and the white color the symbolized royalty. Aside from making clothes for the kings, linen materials were also traded outside Egypt to counties like Persia, Greek, Rome, and North Africa. (James & Barnet, 1979).
This thick layer of silt is what gave Ancient Egypt its glory i.e. a fertile and agricultural country that supported a dense population. The Arable land in ancient Egypt lay in the Nile valley which halted in this Nile valley, the river deviates towards the coastline where the rich silts are deposited. The river then meanders in two directions. i.e. to the east and west to the east is Damietta subsidiary and to the west is the Rosetta River. In between forms a wide delta where a lot of agricultural activities occur. Today this delta comprises two-thirds of the total arable farming land in the whole of Egypt.
The dissection between the valley and the desert translated to some form of the boundary between the city of Memphis. In ancient Egypt, this natural division was acknowledged by the Egyptians and the two areas were treated as different kingdoms i.e. Upper Egypt (valley) and lower (Delta). In Upper Egypt (valley) evidence points out a distinct internal division within Asyut apparent in part from internal weakness in the history of ancient Egypt and also from topography. Middle Egypt was also a term used to describe the west bank of north Asyut. Lower Egypt topographically characteristic of a unifying complex of the east and west joining it Asia via the Sinai Peninsula.
The Nile River is fed by two tributaries namely the Blue Nile and the Atbara, both of which source form the Ethiopian mountain. These tributaries during the rainy season in Ethiopia swell enormously and head downstream powerfully carrying with them a heavy wash of rich topsoil which deposit in the Nile rivers. The Nile River then washes the soil’s sediments in the delta region which is flat and fertile. Dating back to ancient times to even the present day, this region is intensively cultured. The presence of irrigation and drainage canals makes this an ideal habitable place and it is studied with various small cities and towns. The massive population coupled with the elaborate irrigation systems is what has supported the civilization for the many centuries that have passed.
Others
The other economic activities in Egypt included slavery, warfare, energy, commerce, and banking. These sectors were not properly cut out as economic activities although they contributed a great deal in facilitating other economic activities. For example, slaves worked in the mines and in the fields to produce the output that they needed in producing their output. (White & Manchip, 1970).
Building and construction
The building and construction of major structures were state controlled and the emphasis on architecture was bit only to provide functional space but also to ensure that a legacy of the power of the Pharaoh was left behind long after his demise. The ancient architects and builders were equally highly skilled in making use of simple but accurate devices like plumb bobs, and sight instruments among others to build temples, palaces, and monuments accurately and with precision. It is interesting to note that buildings in Ancient Egypt were built of perishable materials say clay or wood. This is because they were not intended to last forever. However, important structures such as temples and tombs were built of stones. One cause in point is the Djoser mortuary which was rebuilt with stone replacing the previous one that was semi-permanent. The architectural designs were mainly of geometrical shapes and decorative. Djoser’s mortuary included posts and stone-made roof blocks which were supported by closely spaced external walls (James & Barnet, 1979) This design was replicated across the construction of the many structures that followed. In addition, the papyrus motifs and lotus borrowed from the old kingdom characterized the common theme of most ancient Egyptian architecture.
Other structures that were intricately designed were the Mastaba (flat-roofed and rectangular in shape and the Karnat temple. The Mastabas inspired the step pyramids which in turn also influence the construction of the first real pyramid. The step pyramid was essentially many Mastabas piled on top of each other notably, pyramids were a favorite of the pharaoh ruler in the old kingdom. Nevertheless, the rulers in the middle kingdom soon did away with constructions of pyramid structures in favor of other noncomplex stone-cut tombs (White,1970) the pharaohs for some time-built rock-cut tombs in the designated area where kings were laid to rest but soon after discarded the tomb architecture.
The temples of ancient Egypt also depict the architectural culture of the time. The temples constructed from the times of the old kingdom were mainly halls enclosed in four walls and the roof slabs supported by poles. The pharaoh of the fifth dynasty introduced the architectural concept of Ben Ben’s stone. This is a construction of pyramid-like nature surrounded by an outer wall that was connected to the Nile. The Temples in the new kingdom were complicatedly divided with pylons, courtyards, and hypostyle walls that ensured that common people, high priests, and royals kept to their place, or at least, this was the standard architectural design before the period of Roman and Ptolemaic empires.
Conclusion
The Egyptian economic structure encouraged division of the population according to the amount of wealth that one had. The lowest people in the economic structure were the laborers, servants, and slaves. In the early dynastic era, following the social revolution which stimulated economic activities such as intensive trade in the barley, wine, precious metals, and fine artifacts in the middle kingdom, the wealth of the Egyptians. This in effect balanced out the economic classes. The pharaohs in particular acted out by encouraging the growth of a professional body of soldiers who then shifted to the upper class. The level of skill and literacy was high and the economic strength to the Egyptians.
Nonetheless, despite the vast production capabilities and the high level of intelligence Egyptians had, the growth of cities in ancient Egypt was rather stunted because of the paternalistic nature of the pharaoh’s rule. It was not until Egypt came under the rule of the Greeks that some developments started. In the new kingdom, a large part of the population was prosperous tradesmen and artisans who did not have any land ownership.
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