Introduction
During the Mongols’ military and political rise, the Mongolian empire made outstanding achievements under Genghis Khan. He invaded Northern and Southern China dynasties, conquering the Jin, Xia, and Song dynasties. The essay explores Sino-European interactions before the Mongols and Song dynasty’s interactions with the Liao, Western Xia, and Jin. In addition, the essay examines the history of Mongol conquests and its military while highlighting the significance and significant points of the Mongolian empire.
Sino-European Interactions before the Mongols
Sino-European interactions are relations between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the European Union (E.U.). The Chinese traded with their European counterparts before the Mongols. The Roman high classes greatly wanted Chinese silk in exchange for Mediterranean coral and glass valued in China (Lattimore O., and Lattimore. E 54). In the PRC, there were settlements of foreigners in most of the towns, and they played a vital role in the spread of cities and towns beyond the old management centers and assisted in disseminating foreign ideas and objects throughout Chinese land. For instance, the Tang Chinese felt some ambivalence concerning foreigners in their land. They were enthused and fascinated by what Europeans brought, whether material culture or intellectual excitement; however, they did not often trust or like the messenger (Waley-Cohen 10). The interactions appeared to bring some civilization to China because it was possible to attain some powerful sense of the world beyond the PRC from the accounts of European merchants, soldiers, and religious travelers.
Moreover, the Silk Roads came to link China to Europe, which opened a network of trade avenues across Asia and Europe. The borders were open, and travel became easy, making European merchants take advantage while expanding many different religions. Significant travels from Europe to China occurred during the Yuan dynasty before the Mongols. In this period, several delegations traveled from European countries to China as religious leaders, diplomatic ambassadors, and traders (Hanshu 88). In addition, a diplomatic envoy was sent from China to Europe and met with the European kings and the pope (Waley-Cohen 30). Further, before the Mongols conquered China left an in-depth effect on the political, economic, and cultural life of several states and countries throughout Eurasia (O. Lattimore and E. Lattimore 59). Hence, before the Mongols, Sino-European interactions were conducive and favorable to both parties, as the Chinese and Europeans benefited from these interactions.
Song Dynasty’s Interactions with the Liao, Western Xia, and Jin
The interactions of the Song dynasty with the Liao, Western Xia, and Jin were that of adversaries. Jin, the Liao, and the Western Xia were non-Chinese states and enemies of Song in northern China. The three regimes continuously fought against one another, which permitted the Song dynasty to enlarge its borders. Nonetheless, they did not implement a defensive approach against them. The Song frequently came into conflict with the non-Chinese states. A dynasty governed China during the most brilliant cultural epochs (O. Lattimore and E. Lattimore 62). The Song Dynasty alternated between warfare and diplomacy with the Western Xia in the Northwest region and the Liao Dynasty in the Northeast. The Song dynasty applied military force to conquer the Liao and recapture the 16 Prefectures (Waley-Cohen 35). The Liao troops revolted against Song armies and were involved in destructive yearly campaigns in the Northern region of Song until 1005 when they signed the Shanyuan Treaty that determined the northern border conflicts (Waley-Cohen 37). This treaty was a conclusion of successive wars between the Song and Liao dynasties creating peace in the region.
Further, Song won many military victories over the Jin dynasty in the early 11th century, ending in a campaign spearheaded by Shen Kuo. Nonetheless, the campaign failed because the rival military officers disobeyed straightforward orders, and the territory attained from the Western Xia was lost. For approximately 150 years, the outcome of the Song wars was a stalemate (Waley-Cohen 39). They did not conquer their neighbors, Liao, Western Xia, and Jin; however, they lost a substantial area. Thus, they kept their regional integrity and were able to thrive within their boundaries. The Liao dynasty in the Northeast served as a military threat to Song. Their empire extended in the late 900s even though Xia resisted them. In addition, the Song believed that if they attained the Xia region, they might re-establish the profitable Silk Road commerce (Lattimore and Lattimore 65). Fortunately, they won many military battles over the Xia in the 11th century. Further, the combined forces of Song and Jin overwhelmed the Liao dynasty (Waley-Cohen 41). Nevertheless, Jin rose against the Song dynasty capturing its capital city.
The History of Mongol Conquests and Their Military and Its Significance
The Mongol Empire was one of the world’s biggest empires. It began in the Central Asia Steppes before it spread to over 9 million square kilometers. Genghis Khan established this empire around 1200CE when an organization of tribes elected him (Waley-Cohen 43). The Mongolians and the Turkish-speaking were the tribes that formed this territory (Invictus 1). From this point, Khan began to take a sequence of expansions to increase his land and kingdom. The first assignment of his expansion was the His Hsia, located in Northwest China, and then went to the Jin dynasty (Invictus 1). In addition, he managed to conquer the Song dynasty after 319 years of rule.
Further, campaigns of Khan contributed to the fall of Beijing to his leadership, and he included Turkistan in his realm in Central Asia. The efforts shown in his quest for power saw the Mongol empire stretching from the Caspian to China Seas with people of diverse origins, religions, languages, and civilizations. The Mongolians’ nomadic lifestyle and the aspect of using horses made them fierce and swift on the war front. Besides, they adapted to various environments and could survive wherever they were transverse. It offered the best force for the emperor and the Mongolian Empire’s expansion (Invictus 1). They had troops with superior strategy and tactics other than the strength in their numbers. The armies could organize and re-organize to adapt and survive assaults.
The Mongolians were brutal conquerors who smashed everything in their way, and their vast expansion contributed to some environmental effects as many people lost their lives. Hence, a significant depopulation of the conquered territories resulted in vegetation growth cover and a cooling effect on those areas. Mongol empire contributed to the development of the Silk Road as it offered security and created trade to thrive. The leaders served as patrons of the conquered people’s Greta arts, preserving them and leading artists to migrate from Central Asia and the Middle East to Mongolia (Invictus 1). Further, there were significant interactions and exchanges during this era as the Europeans made with Africans and Asians as they traversed the Middle East. It contributed to the exchange of religion, products, ideas, culture, technology, and knowledge (Waley-Cohen 43). Moreover, since they were religious and culturally tolerant people, they permitted the thriving of different religions and cultures across the territory.
Conclusion
It may be summed that each realm was conquered and enlarged into a geographical location where emperors could defend and gain wealth while increasing their influence. Sino-European interactions before the Mongols involved trade, diplomacy, and religious missionaries. Song dynasty’s interactions with Liao, Xia, and Jin were constant aggressive attacks against each other. The Mongolian empire managed to defeat other dynasties such as Song, Xia, and Jin to emerge as one of the largest in the world.
Works Cited
Hanshu, Hou. “Early Chinese Account of the West.” History of the Later Han, 5th century C.E., 25-220 C.E., pp. 86,88.
Invictus. “The Mongol Empire.” All Empires: Online History Community, 2001, Web.
Lattimore, Owen, and Eleanor Lattimore. Silks, Spices and Empire: Asia Seen Through the Eyes of Its Discoverers. 3rd ed., Sage Publishers, 1973.
Waley-Cohen, Joanna. The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History. 7th ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2000.