The Mughal Empire: Culture and Heritage Essay

Introduction

The Mughal Empire (1526-1540, 1555-1707) was one of the largest empires established in the Indian subcontinent.¹ It was founded by Babur in 1526 and continued to expand until the beginning of the eighteenth century.² During the period preceding Mughal India, the region was governed by the Delhi Sultanate – a generation of Muslim leaders.³ Thus, the history of pre-Mughal India already had a conflict between Muslim governors and Hindu residents. During the rule of Akbar the Great, this struggle between the two religions was softened, as the emperor tried to establish a state with a level of religious freedom.⁴ Nevertheless, this path of the empire changed when Awrangzeb (Aurangzeb) came to power. The actions of this and the following rulers exacerbated the religious conflicts. The combination of the regions’ economic independence, the tensions between Hindus and Muslims, and the penetration of the subcontinent by the European economic powers led to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

Pre-Mughal India

Before the Mughal Empire was established, the region was ruled by the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultans existed when the Mongols attempted to attack and conquer the empire’s lands.⁵ Their presence in the North-West was a reason for a continuous political struggle for the area. It should be noted, however, that the Sultanate had Mongol ancestors as well, being derived from families with Mongol and Persian roots.⁶ Thus, Genghis (Chinghis) Khan was a significant influence in the history of both dynasties.

This history of the Delhi rulers also explains their religious beliefs – each sultan was Muslim, and the purpose of each Muslim leader was connected to his faith. Thus, the sultanate was expected to improve the conditions for Islam to thrive.⁷ Moreover, it was assumed that the government should support and protect Muslims and their faith. This was a source of a massive conflict in the region because India was populated with Hindu people. Hindus constituted a large number of all citizens, and they were responsible for banking, labor, crafting, and other areas of business and economic stability.⁸ Therefore, while uplifting and supporting their religion, Muslim sultans also had to limit the conflicts with Hindus. Nonetheless, non-Muslims had to pay a special tax, jizya, that distinguished them from Muslims.⁹

The Legacy of Akbar the Great

Akbar the Great was one of the numerous prominent rulers of the Mughal Empire. His legacy in Indian history has multiple significant events. First of all, he was the emperor who returned the empire to the Mughal domination after a brief period between 1540 and 1555.¹⁰ Second, Akbar was different from the previous and the following emperors because he wanted to find a new approach to the religious conflict in the region. In the early years of his reign, he abolished the tax on the Hindu people.¹¹ Furthermore, Akbar did not allow Muslims to take war prisoners as slaves, a practice that was legalized before his rule.¹² He established relationships with members of other faiths, including not only Hinduism but also Christianity and other religions with a small presence in the area. Thus, he hoped that the empire would become more accepting of other faiths than before. Akbar continued to decrease the level of superiority given to Muslim specialists, ulama and reduced their funding in favor of other religious scholars.¹³

Akbar’s interest in military technology and research also contributed to the empire’s evolvement and economic independence.¹⁴ The ruler expanded the territories governed by the Mughals and increased political stability. Under his reign, a road-building program was established – it contributed to the improvements in transportation and communication between different regions of the empire.¹⁵ Moreover, Akbar also simplified and systematized the processes of moving goods which had a positive impact on the internal exchange of products.¹⁶ Thus, it can be stated that this emperor tried to modernize the government and the region’s economy by introducing new frameworks. He established a bureaucratic structure under which multiple institutions were created. This centralized rule had levels that helped each official to have more control over personal responsibilities, including ministries that overlooked financial operations, military, judiciary procedures, religious patronage, and royal families.¹⁷ Small systems also existed under the guidance of these departments, is designed for nobles, tax collectors, and military officials.

As it can be seen, the Mughal Empire went through many changes under the guidance of Akbar the Great. He implemented many substantial reforms to the structure of the government and introduced new programs to support the economy. At the same time, he aimed to establish strong relationships with the empires’ population, increasing the success of trade connections both inside and outside the subcontinent. The focus on increasing religious freedoms lowered the tensions and allowed Hindus to make businesses profitable, making regions independent and stable. Due to Akbar’s interest in military advancements and diplomacy, the empire’s territories expanded as well.¹⁸

The Political Decline of the Mughal Empire

The successors of Akbar the Great failed to continue his innovations successfully. As a contrast, the stability and prosperity of the region started to decline slowly after the next emperor came to govern. Multiple causes for the decline of the empire existed. As Heesterman argues, the “empire succumbed under the weight of its own success” – the growth and expansion of the lands, along with their increasing independence, exacerbated the fall of the Mughal rule.¹⁹ The central government became increasingly weak and unable to manage strong and self-sufficient regions.²⁰ Their growth of internal and external trade also contributed to the rise of separate territories as fully sustainable without the empire’s control. Additionally, as the emperors following Akbar reversed his attempts to establish a certain level of religious freedom, the persecution of Hindus resumed.²¹

Another possible reason lies in the disinterest of emperors in military innovation at the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century. The state of stagnancy and the lack of expansion could not support the government anymore, causing another conflict between the central authority and the regions. Thus, the sources of revenue previously collected through taxes were no longer available to the rulers. The security of the government was flawed, and local merchants became interested in European settlements.²² The decline of the Empire was induced by the presence of British merchants who had a particular interest in cotton from Gujarat, an area that had been previously conquered by the Mughals.²³ As an outcome, the region became dependent on the relationship with the West.

Conclusion

The period of the Mughal Empire brought many changes to India and significantly altered its political and religious structure. Before the Mughals established their rule, the tensions between the central government and the regions failed to expand and improve the territories. Under the law of Mughal emperors, especially Akbar the Great, the empire introduced new transportation programs, supported economic stability, and improved religious freedoms for the inhabitants. However, the decline of the Mughal empire was provoked by the center’s weakness and inability to control independent and sustainable territories. With time, the influence of Western merchants and military forces overcame the empire’s government.

Bibliography

Clydesdale, Greg. “What Happened to Indian Supremacy? The Systemic Loss of Prosperity.” Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 12, no. 3 (2007): 305-328.

Heesterman, Jan C. “The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 47, no. 3 (2004): 292-297.

Robinson, Francis. “The Mughal Dynasties.” History Today, 2007.

Tracy, James D. “Asian Despotism? Mughal Government as Seen from the Dutch East India Company Factory in Surat.” Journal of Early Modern History 3, no. 3 (1999): 256-280.

Footnotes

1. Francis Robinson, “The Mughal Dynasties,” History Today, June 2007, 22.
2. Robinson, “The Mughal Dynasties,” 26.
3. Ibid., 22.
4. Ibid., 25.
5. Ibid., 23.
6. Ibid., 24.
7. Ibid., 23.
8. Ibid., 25.
9. Ibid., 25.
10. James D. Tracy, “Asian Despotism? Mughal Government as Seen from the Dutch East India Company Factory in Surat,” Journal of Early Modern History 3, no. 3 (1999): 263.
11. Robinson, “The Mughal Dynasties,” 25.
12. Ibid., 25.
13. Ibid., 24-25.
14. Greg Clydesdale, “What Happened to Indian Supremacy? The Systemic Loss of Prosperity,” Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 12, no. 3 (2007): 318.
15. Ibid., 308.
16. Ibid., 309.
17. Ibid., 308.
18. Robinson, “The Mughal Dynasties,” 25.
19. Jan C. Heesterman, “The Social Dynamics of the Mughal Empire: A Brief Introduction,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 47, no. 3 (2004): 295.
20. Clydesdale, “What Happened to Indian Supremacy,” 319.
21. Robinson, “The Mughal Dynasties,” 25.
22. Clydesdale, “What Happened to Indian Supremacy,” 319.
23. Tracy, “Asian Despotism,” 263.