Background
Culture is of particular importance in human life and the formation of society, as it acts as a means of collecting, storing and transmitting experience. It brings people together, ensures the integrity of the community. Over the centuries, society has been shaped by creating different kinds. All of them had their own special characteristics and corresponded to the level of development of people and the environment. Then scientists began to distinguish between material and immaterial culture, attributing their own features to them. Moreover, the idea of the natural and social roots of the origin and patterns of history has been formed. The study of these aspects is of critical importance for the further development of people’s cultural characteristics and preventing the process of its unification. This work contains a generalization of the data provided in the literary source for a better understanding of the phenomenon of culture.
The article focuses on such a problem as global culture. It consists in blurring the boundaries between different cultures, which leads to a lack of diversity and generalization of features. The main cause and driving force of this phenomenon is cultural diffusion, in other words, the spread of standards. Also of particular importance are electronic communications, mass media, mass media, international enterprises and banks, and the United Nations (“Toward a global culture”, n.d.). Despite this, many representatives of cultures are still struggling to preserve their traditions, customs and views.
Types of Societies
There are six main types of societies, the main criterion for their differentiation is the level of technology development.
- Hunter-gatherer societies
These representatives survive by hunting and collecting plants. Most of these societies existed in the past and were heavily dependent on external environmental factors. This contributed to their frequent movement and relatively small size. The labor of such hunter-gatherer communities was divided equally among the members and possibly went by gender. Moreover, the hunting society was characterized by the fact that it was tribal. Thus, people honored and preserved the heritage of their ancestors, traditions and rituals.
- Pastoral societies
Members of this species graze animals for food and transportation. They exist to this day, in areas where there is no opportunity to engage in gardening and production. Pastoral societies produce surplus products, which contributes to their stability. It is worth noting that in this type of society, some members engage in activities unrelated to survival, such as trade, treatment, spiritual practices and artisans.
- Horticultural societies
The main activity of the representatives of this society is the cultivation of fruits, vegetables and plants. They also have a fairly high level of mobility compared to other societies.
- Agricultural societies
This type relies on technological advances for growing crops as the main activity. This type of society emerged during the Agricultural Revolution that took place 8,500 years ago. She contributed to the development of activities for the cultivation of agricultural crops and the breeding of animals. A special characteristic of this society is a large degree of social stratification. Moreover, they have a system of rulers with a high social status.
- Feudal societies
Feudalism is characterized by a form of society that is based on the ownership of feudal lands. Multigenerational is also a distinct feature of this caste system. Capitalism characteristic of this society has the feature of open competition in a free market. At the same time, the means of production are transferred to private ownership.
- Industrial societies
This concept includes a society based on the use of machines for the production of goods. During this period, many changes occurred, such as factories becoming the center of work, a decrease in the role of the family, education was obtained in schools and the normalization of the media. Political institutions have become equivalent to modern models of governance. Moreover, the bureaucratic form of organizations has developed.
- Post-industrial societies
The main driving force of this type of society is the development of computer and information technology, which led to a general revolution in all spheres of life. Post-industrial society is based on information, knowledge and the sale of services. The main success factor in this case is the ability to work with information. It is noted that this type of society may be less susceptible to social conflicts. Sociologists predict an increase in education and professional training. Along with them, the level of consumerism, the availability of goods and social mobility will increase.
Culture and Society Defined
Society reflects the system of people’s relationships, and culture is a reflection of their way of life, which is formed as a result of these relationships. Culture, collecting the most useful social experience of generations of people, has the ability to accumulate knowledge about the world and create favorable opportunities for its cognition and development. Thus, culture includes such aspects as “language, customs, values, norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations and institutions” (“Culture and society defined”, n.d.). The main function of culture is to help in self-determination and following certain values.
The main and common institutions in this case are family, education, religion, work and health care. In addition, there is the concept of high culture, which mainly refers to representatives of the upper class who have a certain level of cultural capital. Low culture is characteristic of the lower strata of society and includes sports, movies, as well as rock music. Culture and society are closely connected, since society is seen as the interaction of people to maintain a common culture. In modern society, different representatives of cultures interact and exchange resources, which lead to unification.
Culture’s Roots: Biological or Societal?
There are two ideas about the emergence of culture – natural and educational. The first believe that genetics is a force that creates cultural forms common to people all over the world. Thus, genetic and anomalies are factors in the development of behavioral and cultural differences between people. Examples of such distinctive characteristics are language, preferences, and sexual relationships. The educational approach asserts that people are a tabula rasa on which cultural norms are studied.
Moreover, representatives of social learning believe that members of society acquire social behavior in social contexts. That is, behavior is determined not genetically, but socially. The position of social learning is supported in the study of cultural universals or features common to all cultures. Sociobiologists contradict, saying that, for some forms of behavior, there must be natural selection (“Culture’s roots: Biological or societal?”, n.d.). In the modern world, the evidence has gained popularity that certain behavior is the result of social characteristics that induce physiological addictions, which are biological models of behavior.
Material and Non‐Material Culture
Sociologists distinguish two types of culture:
- Material culture
This type is characterized by physical objects that members of society use to define culture. It includes physical objects created by human hands and these include many examples, such as houses, schools, churches, factories, goods and products, and so on. All of them contribute to the formation of behavior and perception of people.
- Non-material culture
They are also considered the result of human activity, but the main difference is that they are created by reason. This type of culture is based on processes for the formation of thoughts, feelings and behavior. These include symbols, language, values and norms.
Symbols and Language in Human Culture
Symbols are defined as cultural representatives of reality peculiar to each individual culture. Thus, the symbols have no common meanings, as they are interpreted by people in different ways. Symbols are divided into verbal or nonverbal, written or unwritten. The most important such symbol is language as a system of verbal and written representations with cultural specificity. It is also the most important factor of continuity and identity. Representing a certain system of signs and symbols, culture implies knowledge and ownership of its aspects. It is impossible to master the achievements of culture without studying the corresponding sign systems. The language of a certain culture is formed only if people interact within a society that has adopted its rules. Mastering this aspect of culture gives people the opportunity to gain freedom, and the ability to evaluate and self-esteem. Moreover, it allows people to be involved in the cultural context and realize their place in culture.
References
Culture and society defined. (n.d.). CliffsNotes.
Culture’s roots: Biological or societal?. (n.d.). CliffsNotes.
Toward a global culture. (n.d.). CliffsNotes.