The National Ambient Air Quality Standards are the regulations or policies that are adopted by states to ensure the safety of the environment. Furthermore, this body is concerned with ensuring pollution free air. There are several strategies that this organization takes to ensure that producing companies respect pollution prevention strategies and practice safe production that protect the environment from pollution. National Ambient Air Quality Standards is closely related with other companies that strive to ensure a safe environment. One of the organizations that National Ambient Air Quality Standards is closely associated with is EPA and the 1970 Clean Air Act (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Generally, National Ambient Air Quality Standards is closely related to these organizations because they also strive to ensure the establishment of a safe and healthy environment. There are common pollutants that states have ambient air quality standards enforced, for instance, they include carbon monoxide, airborne particulate matter, lead, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Different countries have established different policies to assist in the regulation of the six pollutants in their environment, for instance, the United States. The United States have adopted a policy aimed at controlling the effects of carbon monoxide by ensuring there are air cleaners to reduce the level of carbon monoxide in the air every eight hours (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
According to the contents of section 6.2 in chapter 6, the author has discussed and highlighted the constituents of polluted air. Generally, the discussion has extensively presented factors that compose polluted air. Polluted air is not safe for human health in the ecosystem. Air plays an important role in the growth, development and survival of organisms in an ecosystem (Jeffries, McClean, & Brown, 2009). Basically, the author has indicated that polluted air contains coarse particles and carbon monoxide among other dangerous and harmful substances in the air. Although the components listed by the author are common knowledge, there are certain contents of the chapter that are amazing, for instance, major toxic components of urban air. Before reading this chapter, I was never informed that the urban air is more harmful than the rural air pollution (Jeffries, McClean, & Brown, 2009). Moreover, I never had the knowledge that air pollution could be caused by some biological components too. Additionally, I was not aware that there are coarse particles in air pollution. Therefore, this information has enhanced my knowledge of air pollution. The author considers ultrafine particles as excessively fine particles in the chapter or those that easily pollute the environment. Finally, the author has indicated that red blood cells combine with carbon monoxide to produce carbon hemoglobin (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Pollution is a problem in the real world. Pollution has led to decreased life quality and affected the coexistence of organisms in the ecosystem. The case study explains or highlights real world pollution using food stalls from India, China and Malay. The sampling site for this case study was a university, which is a learning institution. This is a good choice because it can enable effective and appropriate sampling since learning institutions are effective in data sampling due to extensive and frequent research on topics. This has improved the quality of the data collected and sampled. Moreover, the food stalls are located in the same court, but without conditioned air. The site of the sampling site is effective because it will allow easy access to relevant information and comparison of the collected data from the respective samples (Jeffries, McClean, & Brown, 2009). Moreover, it will enable drawing realistic and reliable conclusions. There were several items that were sampled by the researcher, for instance, the concentration of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH). There were three elements of PAH that were sampled; they include fluorine, pyrene, naphthalene and chrysene among others. Type of cooking may be harmful to the environment and leads to air pollution. According to the author, deep frying is harmful and may lead to air pollution because it causes the highest average concentration of PM2.5. Therefore, individuals must consider the type of cooking to engage in to protect the environment from pollution (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Biomass is one of the renewable sources of energy utilized by several companies in different countries in the globe currently. Basically, biomass is derived from living organisms in the ecosystem. Biomass is an important source of energy and used by states to promote safety in the air or reduce air pollution. There are several sources of biomass that are globally recognized, for instance, biomass is generated from oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. The largest source of biomass according to environmental experts is wood, for example, forest residues. Forests residues such as tree trumps and dead tress among others produce biomass. India is one of the states that utilize biomass to reduce air pollution caused by production industries in the country (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). There are several roles of biomass in India, for instance, use in production, especially among companies in the country. Biomass in India provides 32% of the energy required for production. Although biomass is considered safe, it produces harmful substance in the air if burnt. These substances produced from biomass are more harmful than those produced by coal. Burning biomass produce harmful substances such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, lead, carbon monoxide, mercury and particulate matter among other hazardous substances that pollute the air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
There are several substances that are produced in the air through natural processes, for instance, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide among others. The most common or abundant substances in the air are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These substances are produced differently in the air, but they are harmful to organisms because they compromise the survival of organisms in the environment. Basically, carbon monoxide is mainly produced by the respiration of human beings. Carbon monoxide is dangerous as headache although it is mainly produced by living organisms such as human beings (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Moreover, carbon monoxide can hinder the transportation of oxygen in the respiratory system through the carboxyl hemoglobin formation. Generally, carbon monoxide is colorless, tasteless and is mainly produced through the hydrocarbon combustion. This gas is commonly produced indoors by stoves, heaters and kerosene among others. Secondly, sulfur dioxide is produced by emissions of substances such as kerosene, combustion of fossil fuels or any other substance that contains sulfur. Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas that has a pungent odor. Generally, sulfur dioxide can be detected at 0.5 ppm. On the other hand, nitrogen dioxide is produced through the combustion of nitrogen substances. Therefore, considering the nature, characteristics and effects of these substances on the living organisms in the ecosystem, they are harmful towards comfortable existence of living organisms (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
The authors have extensively compared and discussed biomass and LPG. There are several reasons why LPG and biomass have been extensively discussed by the authors. However, the main reason is their importance towards environmental protection, especially air pollution. Generally, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) can be used by organizations to safely produce, while protecting the environment from pollution. Therefore, the authors have compared the two based on the likely benefits on environmental conservation and likely effects of the two sources of energy. Biomass is an important and essential source of energy in the environment. However, it affects women, especially the menstrual cycle. Biomass can alter or change the menstrual cycle of women due to the substances or gas it emits on the environment (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). These gasses compromise menstrual cycles because it may delay or change the menstrual cycle in women. Moreover, biomass has effects on the weight of newborn babies. Gasses emitted from biomass may cause growth retardation and increased malformations among pregnant women, which leads to the birth of low weight children. Biomass is important towards improving and reducing air pollution but it also affects the living organisms in the environment. Generally, it affects the menstrual cycle because it may alter or prolong the process, and lead to the birth of low weight children (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
In the recent past, building techniques have been improved to address the changing needs of human beings. Generally, sick building syndrome is an element that has led to the construction of buildings that are less problematic and addresses the needs of living organisms occupying buildings, for instance, human beings (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Generally, sick building syndromes are the effects that building occupants may face. These effects are on the health of occupants, and may lead to discomfort or illness. The most common sick building syndrome is building related illness.
These discomforts are associated with the amount of time that individual occupants spend on respective buildings. There are several symptoms that are associated with the discomforts from a building, for example, nausea, throat irritation, itchy or dry skin and dizziness among others. These effects compromise the life status of building occupants in the globe and must be addressed to ensure the safety of building occupation (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Generally, sick building syndrome is caused by the lack of adequate and appropriate ventilation of buildings. This leads to pollution of air within buildings, which lead to these syndromes. However, addressing these syndromes is not easy considering the nature and magnitude of the effects. Therefore, the most appropriate strategy that can be used to address this challenge is ensuring adequate ventilation among buildings built (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons are one of the groups of harmful substances that can affect the life of organisms in the atmosphere or ecosystems. Generally, these substances are contained in different elements or factors in the ecosystem. Although these substances are absorbed by several body organs, the most common organs that absorb these substances are vegetation, water, soil and air. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons substances or components are harmful for the organisms in the ecosystem (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Generally, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons can affect the well being of human beings in the ecosystem. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons can intoxicate air, which may affect the transportation of oxygen in the body.
Lack of effective oxygen transportation among human beings can affect quality living. Therefore, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons are harmful to the health of other organisms too. However, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons are harmful to human health because it pollutes the air. Air pollution affects the quality of life of human beings because it compromises healthy living. There are several substances composing Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, which are referred to as components, for instance BaP. Generally, BaP is the most abundant component of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, and are frequently referred to as best known moral compound from the group of the authors. This is due to the fact that this component contains the most harmful and the largest component of the substance (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
There are several elements that affect the environment and compromise the quality and safe existence of organisms in the environment. Furthermore, these substances are classified differently in the ecosystem. Oxidative stress is an element that can be caused by the stretch of oxygen and carbon in the atmosphere. This leads to the ineffective flow of oxygen in the body system. According to the illustration given by the author on oxidative stress using a rat, the author states that HO-1 may be used to act as an oxidant marker and associated with the exposure of PM in the process (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Moreover, this process can be used in the induction of injury. The DNA is one of the most important aspects of human beings that should not be destroyed by any substances in the environment. Destruction of this factor or substance in the human system may lead to inability to identify an individual. Generally, reactive oxygen agencies can damage the DNA due to the nature and effects of reactive oxygen on mitochondria and DNA (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Particulate matter is harmful to the health of human beings in the global environment. Generally, particulate matter may lead to the destruction of the respiratory system. Moreover, it may lead to the ineffective flow of oxygen in living organisms. This can lead to early deaths among human beings. Urban is one of the most populated areas globally according to the authors. Urban environments are highly polluted due to the economic activities, mainly production executed in urban areas. Urban areas are prone to air pollution, and this has contributed to the decreased life expectancy period. Air pollution in urban areas has contributed to the decrease in life expectancy (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Generally, air pollution can reduce life expectancy by 15 years, which is negatively affecting quality life status. Particle size is important in enhancing the quality of health among human beings. Generally, particle size leads to negative health effects such as early deaths, ineffective oxygen flow in the body and slow growth among others. These substances are harmful to the health of human beings and should be addressed to ensure quality life and improved life status (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Different chemicals have different formulas. These formulas are scientifically used to identify and group chemicals in the globe. Moreover, the chemical formulas are derived from the names of respective chemicals because scientists constitute chemicals through mixing of different chemicals to come up with the complete chemical (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Anthracene is one of the chemicals that are made up of different chemical components. There is increasing discussion on anthracene, especially solubility. This is due to the fact that it does not easily dissolve in water or it is insoluble in water.
The solubility of a substance in water is determined by the components of the respective chemical or substance. Soluble substances easily dissolve in water and form a uniform mixture. There are certain components that do not dissolve in water. If these substances contained in a substance leads to insolubility of a substance. However, there are measures that can be taken to increase the solubility of a substance (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Generally, anthracene is not soluble in water because of its components derived considering its chemical formula or symbol. Although anthracene is insoluble in water, this can be enhanced and its solubility increased through the addition of soluble substances in the substance. Therefore, solubility of anthracene can be enhanced through the addition of soluble substances (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Sulfur dioxide is one of the most common gasses in the atmosphere. The gas requires devices to be detected and controlled. The controlling sulfur dioxide is important towards ensuring safety in the environment. Although there are several devices that are used in detecting sulfur dioxide in the air, the most common device that may be used due to its efficiency and effectiveness is Serinus 50 Sulfur Dioxide analyzer (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). This device is appropriate because it analyzes the quantity of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere. This device is used in detecting the concentration of sulfur dioxide, and it sounds an alarm based on the amount of sulfur dioxide that has been determined by the operator of the device based on the equipment guidelines. This device is appropriate and effective because it is affordable due to the cost of the device. Compared to other available devices serving the same purposes at the same level of accuracy, it is convenient and the most appropriate (Jeffries, McClean, & Brown, 2009). This instrument is accurate and serves its function adequately. However, there are other models of devices that can be used in detecting the amount or concentration of sulfur dioxide in the environment. The following devices can be used in determining the amount or concentration of sulfur dioxide, Bacharach PCA 2 combustion gas analyzer, BW Gas Alert Clip Extreme 2 and Drager Safety Gas Pac 7000 among others.
Carbon monoxide is one of the most harmful gases in the atmosphere. Basically, it leads to death of living organisms and compromises the status of life, especially among human beings. There are several strategies that have been adopted to ensure effective and appropriate control of the gas amount on the atmosphere. Organizations and companies utilize several devices to determine the amount of carbon monoxide in the environment. This allows such organizations and companies to respond appropriately to the effects of the amount of carbon monoxide present in the air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). The most common devices used in the detection of the amount of carbon monoxide in the air include, Drager Pac, Bacharach Monoxor III Carbon detector and Extech Digital Carbon Monoxide detector among others. These devices are listed on website. Furthermore, there are certain devices that can be used to determine the actual amount of carbon monoxide in the air or carbon monoxide concentration, for instance, breathe carbon monoxide. This device measures the amount of carbon monoxide exhaled by an individual per million individuals. It functions using electrochemical gas sensor. It also incorporates sound warnings to specify the level of concentration of carbon monoxide in the air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Monitoring carbon monoxide in the air is one of the most challenging aspects in most cities and urban places. This is due to the number of activities in cities and urban that leads to the production of carbon monoxide in the air. Generally, carbon monoxide is produced through the combustion of substances such as carbon matter among others. In the cities and urban areas, carbon monoxide is mainly produced from companies and households. There are strategies that can be adopted and applied through legislations to ensure reduction in the amount of carbon dioxide in the air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). The strategies that cities and urban authorities should develop to control the amount of carbon monoxide in the air is encouraging the use of safe production methods and discouraging burning of substances that may produce carbon monoxide in households. Moreover, introduction of fuels that do not produce carbon monoxide should be encouraged to ensure that the environment is safe (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Carbon monoxide is common in the air between cities and urban areas, controlling the amounts in air are almost impossible because households contribute to the production too. Therefore, introduction of safe fuels that do not produce carbon monoxide, and the introduction of safe production method are important towards the reduction of carbon monoxide in the air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Particulate matter sampling is an important element in the process of measuring environmental matter. The environmental matter is the components that constitutes the environment and defines the safety of the environment. There are several elements that influence particulate matter in the atmosphere, for instance, humidity. Humidity affects particulate matter in several ways during the sampling process, for instance, decrease the amount. Humidity affects the determination of the amount of particulate matter in the atmosphere, which does not allow experts to determine the actual amount of particulate matter on air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). There are several strategies and methods that are used to determine particulate matter in the atmosphere. The strategies or methods vary in accuracy due to the equipments and principles of measurements used by each. The most common method used is the direct mass measurement technique, which involves direct measurement of the amount of particulate matter in the atmosphere and sampling. This method is frequently used because it is not complex, and easy to understand (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
There are different types of dispersion models that pollute the air. These models differ and have different advantages and disadvantages. The most common dispersion models are box model, Gaussian puff model, Gaussian plume model, Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model, Eulerian model and Lagrangian model (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Box model is considered as a basic dispersion model because it is based on the balance of mass. However, the chemistry involved is complex. Secondly, the Gaussian plume model is a dispersion model based on the horizontal and vertical distribution of the plume, but under steady-state. This model only considers pollutants’ advection and diffusion.
This model is not effective because it does not consider the time taken to travel to receptors by pollutants. Furthermore, they are not suited for modeling of regional particulates, and its equation cannot calculate the effects or recirculation that may be caused by the intersection. The Gaussian puff model is a dispersion model that is used in approximating continuous emissions. This model can handle spatial and temporal variations. Furthermore, Lagrangian model is an approach that is used in particles’ fluid properties study following trajectory. This method is best suited for stationery and homogenous conditions. Moreover, Eulerian model is a method used in studying the properties of a fluid at fixed points in the space. Additionally, EFD model is a method that is used in studying fluid flow (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
There are different classes of atmospheric stability described by the author in the book. These classes represent different levels of concentration of pollutants in the air. The classes of atmospheric stability described by the authors are A, B, C, D, E and F. Generally, classes a and B represents instability, classes C and D represents neutrality and classes E and F represents stability. The stability in the atmosphere is used to determine pollutant concentrations, which is important towards the determination of a control or measure to curb the situation (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Modeling methods are used to determine air pollution. There are several models that have been developed and each are applied in different areas, for instance, neural network models and fuzzy logic-based models. Generally, the modeling methods that are used in fuzzy logic-based and neural networks are deterministic and statistical models (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Basically, statistical models predict the observations concentration. Similarly, deterministic model is used in determining the concentration of pollutants. Generally, deterministic and statistical models can be used as parameter estimators because they assist in the calculation of the concentration of pollutants in the air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
Eulerian and Lagrangian dispersion models are closely related and classified together. Moreover, there are certain methods that are common in this model, for instance, GATOR, CIT, CALGRID, AERO and UHMA. Generally, GATOR is used in the calculation of aerosols and gas dispersion in urban-scale. It either uses stationary or moving size dynamic particles. It is also used in calculating solar irradiance. Secondly, UHMA focuses on aerosol dynamic treatment. It also focuses on the growth and formation of new particles. Furthermore, CIT is a model used in determining or measuring the chemistry and dispersion in air sheds, and it incorporates aerosol model (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Moreover, CALGRID is a model based on UAM-IV, but with horizontal advection improvements. This model is used in the calculation of atmospheric stability. This model can also be used to measure the concentration of inert and reactive gasses on an hourly basis. The model uses photochemical mechanisms in performing the above functions. Finally, AERO model is a method used in the determination of aerosol concentration in air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
There are several economic theories that have been developed in the past to assist in enhancing environmental safety and health status of human beings and other organisms in the ecosystem. The most recent strategies that have been developed are ecological economics and green economics. Green economics is one of the most recent and effective strategy used by environmentalists in improving environmental safety. Generally, the strategy developed through the increased need to protect the environment by ensuring green environment. A greener environment is important towards ensuring clean and safe air according to this strategy. The strategy developed through ensuring growth of more trees and protection of forests and natural resources such as grass (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Although green economics and the ecological economics are one of the most recent theories used in the protection of the environment, they are different in several aspects, for instance, common thought. According to the ecological economic strategy, the most important aspect that should be protected to enhance the safety of the environment is the ecology. On the other hand, green economics strategy aims at preserving the green organisms in the ecosystem towards a safer environment. However, these strategies are similar in the sense that they aim at preserving the components of the ecosystem towards a safer and healthy environment (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
There are several substances in the air that should be controlled to reduce air pollution. The quantity of these substances in the air leads to pollution of the air. However, reduction of such substances leads to safer environments. The most abundant gasses in the air are carbon monoxides and sulfur dioxides. These substances should be reduced, removed or their presence controlled in the air to reduce air pollution and increase environmental safety. There are several strategies or methods that can be used to reduce carbon monoxide in the air and remove sulfur dioxide in the air and minimize air pollution (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010). Carbon monoxide can be reduced in the air by planting more trees in the environment. Plants control the amount of carbon monoxide in the air because it is utilized in the process of food synthesis. This will lead to the utilization of carbon monoxide and reduction in emission. Secondly, eradicating the burning of carbon matter and other substances that produce carbon monoxide such as waste. Burning litters increases the amount of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere and reduced practices can lead to the reduction in the amount of the substance in the air. Sulfur dioxide can also be decreased in the air by avoiding the increased combustion of sulfur substances in the air because it leads to increased sulfur dioxide in the air (Gurjar, Molina, & Ojha, 2010).
References
Gurjar, B. R., Molina, L. T., & Ojha, C. S. (2010). Air Pollution: Health and Environmental Impacts. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Jeffries, D., McClean, F., & Brown, L. (2009). Environmental Pollution and Health Impacts. London: Cengage Learning.