Historical Periods of Ancient Greek Civilization
The history of Ancient Greek civilization is recognized by its four utterly distinct periods. In other words, they are known for their most significant accomplishments and elements that differentiate them from other eras of Ancient Greece. In addition, their names already incline their specifics and imply their superiority over different Ancient Greek periods. Overall, Greek history is separated into four primary eras: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, and Bronze.
To begin with, the earliest period of Greek history was the Bronze, and it is characterized by the usage and production of essential tools and the formation of two civilizations, which further contributed to the development of early Greece. Berger et al. (2016) mention that the period of the Bronze Age started in 3000 BCE and lasted until 1150 BCE. Furthermore, the name of the era already implies that people began using bronze tools in their daily life to complete basic tasks related to hunting and cooking (Berger et al., 2016). During the times, more than a dozen of city-states, poleis, were established across Mesopotamia (Berger et al., 2016). The citizens started building pyramid temples and other buildings, which were crucial for their culture. Overall, the development of literature and art was evident in the Bronze Age; however, few people understood artists’ pieces’ ideas and main points.
The Archaic period is widely recognized for its accomplishments in expansion and establishing contacts with various parts of the mainland. To be more exact, according to Berger et al. (2016), the Archaic period began in 750 BCE and ended in 480 BCE. Furthermore, this era is known for the unity of Greek as a nation “connected by virtue of their common language, religion, and Homeric values,”; whereas before, they used to perceive themselves as “citizens of individual city-states” (Berger et al., 2016, p. 4). The primary unit of organization in Greek culture, the polis, was also established in the Archaic period (Berger et al., 2016). The most famous poleis were Athens and Sparta, so they could control other city-states and their “government, army, economy, … and culture” (Berger et al., 2016, p. 5). However, Athens’ aristocratic constitution and its highly negative impact on this polis’ citizens resulted in “the appointment of Solon as lawgiver for the year 594 BCE” (Berger et al., 2016, p. 5). As and whole, the Archaic period also contributed to the major thriving of art and literature, so artists could finally show people what they could do with their words and ideas.
The Classical period of Greek civilization was the age of economic, military, and intellectual advancement of the mainland, which positively impacted its citizens’ lives. Furthermore, according to Berger et al. (2016), the era began in 480 BCE and ended in 323 BCE. As a matter of fact, the most notable accomplishment of Classical Greece is philosophy due to “the ideas of the most significant Greek philosophers of all time: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle” (Brooks, 2020, p. 4). In addition, the poleis finally became economically and militarily advanced and were highly innovative in their production and trade. Overall, the political achievements of the period appear to be not as influential as society’s intellectual and artistic development.
The Hellenistic period of Greek civilization is recognized for society’s transformation and considerable change in city-states’ operations. The timeline of the Hellenistic Age stands from 323 BCE to 30 BCE (Sakoulas, 2021). The Greek language was established as the official language of the Hellenistic world; hence, the art and literature were altered according to this change (Sakoulas, 2021). Furthermore, the age is also known for the significant advancement in applied sciences, including not only theoretical but practical achievements. Unfortunately, the Hellenistic world suffered from both internal conflicts and new external enemies that desired to destabilize Greece and its highly influential city-states considerably.
Homer’s Poem The Iliad
Homer’s The Iliad is considered the earliest work of Western literature since it focuses on the significant events of the Trojan War. The author discusses the critical topics of glory, wrath, fate, and homecoming through Achilles’s main character. The Greek warrior Achilles desires revenge on Agamemnon, so with the help of gods, he attempts to turn the war against the Achaeans, so he can come to their aid and gloriously die in the battle, as destined.
However, Zeus banned the gods from intervening in the battle and helped the Trojans in the war against the Achaeans. Therefore, Nestor asked Achilles to help them in the fight; however, he refused to participate unless the Trojans burned his ships. Achilles’ comrade, Patroclus, takes his place and leads the army, pretending to be Achilles. Having avenged the Achaeans, he pursued the Trojans back to Troy, where Hector killed him. “A dark cloud of grief fell upon Achilles as he listened” to Nestor’s news of Patroclus’ death, so the warrior decides to work with Agamemnon to kill Hector (Homer, 2021, p. 5). His enormous rage is his driving force in battle; he is focused on killing Trojans and Hector, specifically, “every motion he made in putting on the armor forged for him in heaven was an act of passion directed against the Trojans…” (Homer, 2021, p. 6). Eventually, Achilles kills Hector and avenges his dear comrade, Patroclus, which means the loss of the Trojans. Overall, Homer depicts Achilles as a great and determined warrior, always ready to avenge one’s friend or dear person and, therefore, save the Achaeans.
Classical Style and Its Relation to Greek Culture
The Classical style of Greek art is firmly based on proportion and harmony and is evident in most works of the period. In other words, artists strived to present the human form and its complexity, “the idea that humankind is inherently beautiful, capable, and creative” (Brooks, 2020, p. 5). The Greeks did not depict the gods in their usual form, higher and superior above humans, “keep the gods appeased and sought out oracles for hints of what the future held” (Brooks, 2020, p. 5). Furthermore, art was characterized by the freedom of movement and expression, so the artists were able to depict their ideas in any way they considered appropriate. As a matter of fact, since the Classical Age of Greece was the time of intellectual development of citizens, the artistic aspect of the society’s life also thrived and had more opportunities for improvement. In other words, the Classical style is highly associated with changes in the Greek civilization at the time, considering that people were also allowed freedom in their expression.
Furthermore, the artists focused on expressing not idealized shapes or figures but on naturalism, simplicity, and balance. For instance, the sculpture of Dexileos is a prominent example of Classical art since it maintains the balance between the Greek norms and the nudity of Corinthian. To be more exact, the expressionless faces of both characters portray the drama of the scene. Still, the natural shapes of the bodies and the horse are the critical elements of the Classical sculpture style. However, Dexileois, in his half-human form, is not presented as superior to Corinthian since the worship of gods was highly opposed by the Greeks. Overall, Greek art was based on nature and balance, expressing the crucial aspects of society’s beliefs and ideas. The authors opted for total freedom of their art and did not follow any canonic pieces of different art styles, which contributed to the creation of the Classical style’s exquisite and magnificent art, literature, and sculpture.
References
Berger, E., Israel, G. L., & Miller, C. (2016). World history: Cultures, states, and societies to 1500. The University of North Georgia.
Brooks, C. (2020). Western civilization: A concise history (Vol. 1). Portland Community College.
Homer. (2021). The Iliad. Independently published.
Sakoulas, T. (2021). History of Greece: Hellenistic. Ancient Greece.