Church in Australia at the Turn of the Century (Australia’s Church Life on the Verge of the 19th and 20th Centuries)
In the late 19th century, all churches present in Australia were in dire need of new members, particularly male ones. One of the reasons for this was that priests’ salaries often depended on their congregation’s generosity and men were the only earners in the family at that time (O’Brien 440). There were also significant cultural and social differences between the clergy and their parish, which had their implications. In the Church of England, ministers were mostly English, and the Catholic Church’s ones were Irish (O’Brien 441). This inevitably created a barrier of the birthplace, which hindered their communication with the locals and affected the number of new members. This situation enabled priests to seek new believers among the bushmen, which required proving their “manliness” (O’Brien 442). Clergy that went to the outback had to be physically fit, able to endure harsh conditions, and tolerant of the habits of their parish to earn their respect.
In large cities, such as Melbourne, the problems of decreasing church attendance and general religious disbelief were also present. The discussion between the clergy and the non-believers was maintained in different publications, including Melbourne Review and the Victorian Review, which provided a platform for the exchange of opinions (Roe 149). For example, the Anglican minister of Williamstown wrote, “I have felt the reproach of having failed to comprehend and satisfy the requirements of the nineteenth century men and women” (Roe 150). Yet, despite the common idea for the period to discard the religion completely, many claimed that a new reform was needed. Some proposed to create a new religion, the one which would be based “on the life and teachings of the man Jesus” (Roe 151). Consequently, their idea also implied freeing Protestantism from Calvinist ideas.
Charles Strong (the Founder of the Australian Church)
Reverend Dr. Charles Strong (1844-1942) was one of the prominent members of the Australian peace movement and the first minister of the Australian Church. He was born in Scotland and came to Australia in 1875 to become the pastor of the Scots’ Church. Yet, soon he went on to become a notable liberal voice among the clergymen of the country (Saunders, “An Australian Pacifist” 241). He openly questioned the dogmas of the Church and believed that it had to react to the social phenomena that were taking place during that period, which eventually led to his resignation in 1883. He decided to start his own church, which, according to Worsley and Strong, would be “in harmony with, and expressive of, the free, democratic and progressive spirit of Australia” (qtd. in Saunders, “An Australian Pacifist” 241). He had “socialist” views and was interested in the improvement of the conditions of the poor, factory workers, women, and supported the reform of criminal law (Bowman 14). Until his death, he performed pastoral, educational activities and wrote extensively for the Australian Church (Bowman 14). After his passing, it was transformed into the Charles Strong Memorial Trust in 1957.
He was also a leading activist of the pacifist movement during the Great War, which likely stemmed from his own experience seeing that wars harm the common workingmen the most. He strongly adhered to the notion that any war was simply incompatible with Christianity and its values, even though he agreed that the Bible did not prohibit it. There was no mention of him promoting the idea of peace among nations (Saunders, “The ‘Pacifism’” 10). Nevertheless, he also argued that if Christ were alive in the twentieth century, he would certainly be a pacifist.
Bernard O’Dowd (a Famous Poet and Activist, One of the Earliest Members of the Australian Church)
Bernard O’Dowd was born in Beaufort in 1866, he was of Irish descent, and his parents were Catholics. After successfully finishing school, he went on to receive a scholarship and eventually earned degrees in Arts and Law from the University of Melbourne (Bongiorno 100). He was a socialist, but his ideas were often radically different from the mainstream liberal ideas of his day and age and earned him the title of a cultural nationalist (Bongiorno 107). One of the common ideas of the labor movement at that time was the notion that material improvement would lead to the establishment of democracy. While O’Dowd believed that it would not be enough, since the key to democracy was achieving a significant level of morality. He argued that without it, society would “dissolve into its original elements, disorder, passion, degradation, and violence” (Bongiorno 104). He also did not adhere to the idea of “White Australia” and strongly opposed racism (Bongiorno 109). To him, the idea of people of color being inferior to white people was a myth.
Despite his religious upbringing, he was an atheist, which did not stop him from becoming interested in spiritualism and Unitarianism. He became one of the first members of the Australian Church, established by Reverend Dr. Charles Strong. He maintained religious skepticism but, according to his own words, always believed in the soul’s immortality (qtd. in Bongiorno 101). O’Dowd claimed that the rights of freedom, religion, and conscience were considerably more vital than the pursuit of material needs. He considered the Marxist ideals alien to the Australian case (Bongiorno 107). Consequently, his socialism was not based on them.
The Anti-Conscription Movement (a Movement that Stemmed from the Australian Church’s Ideology)
The anti-conscription movement was largely influenced by the Australian Church’s stance on the military draft, and namely Charles Strong’s point of view. He was in complete opposition to the compulsory military training and conscription for overseas military service both before and during the First World War (Saunders, “An Australian Pacifist” 244). He believed that compulsory service in the army gradually becomes an instrument that helps the government control people’s lives. He said that it “inevitably destroys personality, and forces young men to be the mere tools of a government” (Saunders, “An Australian Pacifist” 250). As a man who adhered to the pacifist views, he stated that conscription was an infringement on Christianity and democracy, as well as individuals’ freedom and liberty of conscience (Saunders, “An Australian Pacifist” 253). Strong’s urging to vote “No,” accompanied by other eight Protestant ministers, before the 1917 referendum, is considered his greatest contribution to the anti-war cause (Saunders, “The ‘Pacifism’” 248). Apart from the Australian Church, there were other organizations devoted to repealing the conscription act, such as the Free Religious Fellowship (FRF) (Wade 95). It was established in 1911 by Reverend Frederick Sinclaire.
The FRF joined another prominent anti-conscription organization of the period, called the Australian Peace Alliance, established in 1914, which included different groups opposing the Great War (Wade 100). The organization held two anti-conscription demonstrations in Melbourne, which were attended by thousands of people (Wade 102). The anti-conscription cause was supported by female socialist groups, they held meetings, organized rallies, established committees, and were active both in Melbourne, the main battleground of the anti-war campaign, and smaller cities (Damousi 1). The anti-conscription movement proved to be successful after the two failed attempts by the government to pass the compulsory military draft through referenda.
Works Cited
Bongiorno, Frank. “Bernard O’Dowd’s Socialism.” Labour History, vol. 77, 1999, pp. 97–116.
Bowman, John. Comparative Religion. The Charles Strong Trust Lectures 1961-1970. Brill, 1972.
Damousi, Joy. “Socialist Women and Gendered Space: The Anti-Conscription and Anti-War Campaigns of 1914-1918.” Labour History, vol. 60, 1991, pp. 1–15.
O’Brien, Ann. “‘A Church Full of Men’: Masculinism and the Church in Australian History.” Australian Historical Studies, vol. 25, no. 100, 1993, pp. 437–457.
Roe, Jill. “Challenge and Response: Religious Life in Melbourne, 1876-86.” Journal of Religious History, vol. 5, no. 2, 1968, pp. 149–166.
Saunders, Malcolm. “An Australian Pacifist: The Reverend Dr. Charles Strong, 1844-1942.” Biography, vol. 18, no. 3, 1995, pp. 241–253.
The “Pacifism” of the Reverend Dr. Charles Strong: 1844–1942. Interdisciplinary Peace Research, vol. 5, no. 1, 1993, pp. 3–32.
Wade, Chris. “Practical Idealists: The Free Religious Fellowship, the Great War and Conscription.” The La Trobe, vol. 99, 2017, pp. 95–107.