Introduction
“Water has conventionally been managed within administrative rather than natural boundaries, in a fragmented rather than holistic manner and in technocratic rather than participatory way” (The University of Sydney 2006, p. 1).
Management of catchment and coastal areas remains a multifaceted task. Catchment and coastal zone needs an integration of social, culture and ecological alongside economically viable elements of these factors to ensure sustainable management (Stocker, Kenchington & Wood 2012, p. 29). Moreover, major stakeholders and other interest groups should cooperate on various issues to realise sustainable development objectives for catchment and coastal zone. Prior to launching an integrated management initiative, it is imperative to understand why water management is critical in Australia.
A number of activities took place after the settlement of Europeans in Australia. There was massive clearing, grazing, cropping, drainage and dredging for mineral resources. These activities had far-reaching implications on the hydrological and environmental attributes of the country’s waterways (Pigram 1986, p. 77). The observed changes brought about water issues under scrutiny in Australia. Australia is classified among the driest continents on the Earth due to the amount of rainfall received and its runoffs relative to other states.
In addition, Australia has experienced several cases of severe droughts with long-lasting rainfall scarcity, for instance, the droughts of 1979 to 1983, which had led to calamitous impacts on the environment, people and the economy (Pigram 1986, p. 33). Nevertheless, Australia has emerged as the second best country after the US in terms of water consumption per capita (930Kl/capita) (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2014). In addition, the country has the best water storage capacity per person, which is necessary for sustainable agricultural activities and water supplies for domestic consumption, particularly during prolonged dry seasons (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2014).
Water is necessary to sustain life. For centuries, water has been a fundamental tool in develop and advancement of human civilisation (Pigram 1986, p. 3). It is estimated that that the Earth has approximately 14 million cubic meter as the total volume of water (USGS 2014). Despite water abundance on the Earth’s surface, a small percentage of fresh water is available for human consumption while a greater percentage is found at wrong places (Pigram 1986, p. 3).
Back to basics: Management
We understand that water is necessary for life and it is only available in small quantity. Water, however, is a renewable resource (Smith 1998, p. 83). Oceans are responsible for supplying water to inland waterways through hydrological processes such as evaporation and precipitation. Hence, factors that influence water availability, including coastal and catchment zones are imperative for sustainability.
At the beginning of the industrial period, pollutants from various industrial sources started to affect the environment negatively. Climate change has been identified as a critical issue in the degradation of coast and catchments. In addition, there are noticeable changes such as extreme weather, rise in sea level, lose in water runoff and less rainfall among others because of effects of climate change and human activities on water bodies. To overcome these challenges for future developments, there is a need to adopt sustainable management (Smith 1998, p. 83).
As stated earlier, management of catchment and coastal zones is a multifaceted task because of various reasons. First, water itself is flexible and may travel and meander across land and into lakes, rivers and oceans in a complex way. Second, the complexity of waterways results in a lack of ownership, responsibilities and collaboration. Catchments and water bodies provide habitat and food resources to millions of species, but human interference for several centuries with natural resources have negatively impacted coastal and catchment areas. Today, these areas remain under serious threats from human activities.
There is a global water crisis. People need water for survival and only sustainable management can guarantee water for future consumption. The major issue has been the meaning of sustainable management. Water is a shared resource among humanity and therefore, sustainable management of water refers to an integrated approach that involves all stakeholders in water management in a manner that ensures that water bodies and other resources receive the most benefits.
Sustainable management of water is not a simple task because of the complexity of several variables that influence social, economic, political and environmental factors associated with water resources. Water sustainability management, therefore, is a broad and complex topic and it is necessary to focus on specific major issues on catchment and coastal management of Australia.
This section covers an integrated catchment management (ICM) and integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) related to Australia. In addition, it also focuses on factors, which lead to failure of catchment and coastal management and presents solutions and alternatives to overcome the gaps of integrated management.
Integrated Catchment Management (ICM)
The Murray–Darling Basin Commission referred to integrated catchment management (ICM) as “a process through which people can develop a vision, agree on shared values and behaviours, make informed decisions and act together to manage the natural resources of their catchment” (Murray–Darling Basin Commission 2007, p. 1).
Australia has several rivers across its states. Water bodies that run across different states have resulted into catchment management issues. Different states and territories have developed distinct systems of catchment management (Williams 2012, p. 1). Hence, effective management of catchment requires integration between states. The ICM provisions consider river systems as a whole and require effective sustainable management of catchment resources with regard to water supply, fishery management, waste disposal and nature conservation (Noakes 2010, p. 14).
The Basic Principals of ICM are:
- Take a holistic approach to the management of land, biodiversity water and community resources at the water catchment scale
- Involve communities in planning and managing their landscape
- Find balance between resources use and resources conservation (Williams 2012, p. 1)
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
There is no a single definition and approach to ICZM, but generally is has been described as a “dynamic and continuous process of administering the use, development, and protection of the coastal zone and its resources towards common objectives of national and local authorities and the aspiration of different resources user groups” (Paisley et al. 2004, p. 196).
Australia is synonymous with its coastal areas. Nearly 85% of the country’s population live around coastal areas and it is highly dependent on the available resources. Hence, Australia is a ‘coastal society’ (Commonwealth of Australia – Department of Climate Change 2009). All the states except ACT have a greater responsibility to manage coastal and catchment zones.
Water knows no boundary and therefore integrated coastal management remains the best approach for Australia’s coastal sustainability. The country has rights and responsibilities over a large area of water relative to its land. As a result, Australia is the world’s third largest ocean management country (Wang et al. 2011, p. 6) Australia developed the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) in 2006 to handle management challenges.
Failure in Integrated Catchment and Coastal management
Dynamic physical, economic, social, environmental and political situations influence planning and management of catchment and coastal zones. These factors shape and inform water policies, priorities and statutory interventions for water bodies (Sewell, Handmer & Smith 1985, p. 67). Several countries have adopted integrated management concept to manage water bodies (Feeney & Gustafson 2009, p. 1). Australia, specifically, has experienced failures or ineffective management of coastal and catchment zones because of several factors, which include:
- Insufficient research.
- Poorly defined policy, management and property rights.
- Difficulty in roles and responsibilities.
- Inadequate funding.
Discussion
First, the major cause of failures in integrated management is a lack of research and understanding. There are significant changes associated with environmental data, including time. Hence, past data for decision-making may not yield the intended outcome. At the same time, management plans have resulted into poor outcomes. For example, the current Australian national research priorities have critical disconnects (Lazarow et al. 2006, p. 111).
High costs associated with research have created disconnects between researchers and stakeholders, which cause resource degradation. Second, there is a lack of scientific research on important issues of catchment and coast management. This has resulted in the development of poor policies and poorly defined policies, which create conflicts with related policies in land management and property rights. Third, roles and responsibilities are highly complex in an integrated management approach. Australia has three distinct levels of government (Federal, state and local) and the country’s constitution has stated that crown land management and planning is the responsibility of individual states and territories (Lazarow et al. 2006, p. 29).
Moreover, at the state level, there are various roles, policies, departments and responsibilities, which have resulted into difficulties in managing national issues on a state-by-state approach. Finally, insufficient funding has resulted in poor management or absolute lack of management of coastal and catchment zones. Humanity’s main interest is in the quantity and quality of fresh water in its liquid state within reach on the Earth’s surface (Pigram 1986, p. 3). Such interests have guided stakeholders to act in the best interest of the public.
Conclusion
Coastal and catchment zones are intertwined and lack specific boundaries. Nevertheless, human interests have resulted in the creation of boundaries, which have caused greater damages. Management bodies must formulate policies that focus on the national water resources in order to overcome conflicts related to management challenges. Federal government must therefore take initiatives to manage national resources.
With regard to integrated approach, all states and levels of governments must play equal roles to save coastal and catchment areas instead of sharing responsibilities based on sectors. Funds are required to facilitate studies that would allow stakeholders to understand causes of disruptions at coastal and catchment zones. Outcomes will be used to formulate effective policies.
Integration may be simple. However, diverse interests and priorities of stakeholders have complicated integrated management strategies. Conflicts related to water resources have persisted for centuries because of accessibility, as was the case in the past. Conversely, today, people have greater access to water resources, but they have degraded them to the extent that it is difficult to find clean water.
Clearly, human activities have degraded water quality and bodies. However, humanity can still collaborate and restore water resources to their natural statuses. This process requires ongoing research and mass education to protect coastal and catchment zones continuously. Australia needs a single department to manage important national resources rather than sharing roles across various state departments. This should be implemented immediately due to rapid degradation of the environment. Otherwise, policymakers might fail to formulate effective policies at later stages.
Finally, humanity must understand the role of environment for survival of species. Educating people on water resource conservation is an important approach and a possible solution to the current water crisis. This requires promotional campaigns to inform the public about human impacts on the environment. With regard to integration, communities remain important stakeholders that can ensure that various levels of the government work in an integrated way to protect water resources.
Regrettably, Australians have demonstrated rare unity during severe droughts and soon forget when the wet seasons arrive. There is no serious thought on future preparation. This explains the existence of the gap among researchers, policymakers and other stakeholders. In most cases, funding research happens after a public outcry on the prevailing situations. Education for masses, therefore, can act as a stool of overcoming gaps in integrated management strategies.
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