China being the most populous nation in the world with a population of about 1.3 billion people grouped into fifty six distinct ethnic groups, covering most of East Asia has a very diverse culture making it be appreciated by other civilizations in the world as one of the oldest and consistent. These aspects are what define a complex culture which greatly varies in provinces, cities and towns in China.
Chinese culture has been in development since the Xia Dynasty (CA. 2100-CA – 1600 BC) to modern China which began in the early 1900s, and has seen constant changes due to the diversity of the Chinese who consist of two groups; the Han Chinese, who are the majority and the national minorities1.
Communist and Maoist ideologies that emerged in the 20th century, assimilated and embraced by the changing Chinese culture are important to establish the basis of how the Chinese culture has evolved from hundreds of years ago to a modern culture.
Distinctly, the Chinese culture is defined by five major elements of ancient practices and traditions, which form the core of the society and beliefs in modern china, which are, food, clothing, housing, transportation and education. Food in China is traditionally believed to have medicinal value, thus the use of plants such as garlic, tree fungus, scallions, fresh ginger, dried lily buds and much more herbs in almost all their cooking.
Scholar Yi Yin (early Shang dynasty) stressed the need for better health, and nutrition a major principle in preparation of food in Chinese culture. Also in Chinese culture, there are two styles of cooking, the Southern and Northern styles. Southern Chinese cooking style is characterized by the Hunan and Szechwan cuisines; abundant use of chilies is what makes these cuisines famous. Importance is given equally to aroma, flavor and color in cooking of each dish.
Northern style cooking is mostly oily, and they are inclined to having vinegar and garlic flavors more profound, with areas of Tientsin, Peking and Shantung being the most recognized for northern style cooking2. Chinese culture dictates that one has to be seated while eating and seating arrangements follow a set down order of who will sit down first from men, to women, then the old and lastly the young.
Chinese prefer darker over lighter colors. And correlate specific seasons with specific colors black is related to winter, white associated with autumn and red associated with summer. The clothing the Chinese wear can be described as having three major types depending on function or occasion e.g. a tunic that extends to the knees and is a ceremonial two piece costume called a pien-fu, a skirt like long robe that goes all the way to the ankles called ch’ang-p’ao and lastly shen-I.
The Chinese are not a deeply religious people, and Chinese cultural religious outlook consists of a mix of practices and beliefs due to the diversity of their ethnicity. Religion in China is majorly made up of four main traditions: Taoism, Chinese folk religion, Buddhism, and Confucianism and rarely does one practice only one with the exclusion of the others.
Emergence of Taoism was perceived as a rival to Confucianism whose teachings were mainly related to society and the government. Taoism (Daoism) spoke of upholding the virtue of Wu Wei (non-action) and instead letting things fall into place, while Confucians on the other hand stressed on ethical action.
Before the advent of Buddhism, a foreign religion to what the Chinese were used to, Confucianism disappeared but the hold it had on people, on the approach to society and government was still retained while the Taoist was transformed to developing ways of reaching immortality through meditation but later found itself competing with the more modern teachings of Buddhism.
Buddhism became the most dynamic of all religions in Chinese culture and almost replaced Taoism and Confucianism due to its huge success among the peasants. Officials, who were afraid of losing their grip on power over the peasants, which was enshrined in both Taoism and Confucianism, hampered its activities greatly.
It later had to work along with the two previous religions Taoism and Confucianism3. Buddhism teachings were more of a radical dualism focusing on enlightenment and salvation through grace unlike Confucianism and Taoism which stressed on non-duality.
Political China is characterized by a single party socialist system with ideologies borrowed very heavily from communist states such as the former Soviet Union now Russia. The sole political party which is the Communist Party of China (CPC) was formed in 1921 by Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu, but before this the Kuomintang was the first political party in China but it later moved to Taiwan in 1949. It was formed as a result of a union of a number of revolutionary groups.
China is mainly governed by a single party which borrows heavily from the communist type of structure from Russia. The Chinese follow the teachings and doctrines of Mao Zedong whose contributions to Leninism and Marxism led him to be highly regarded in China. The fundamental system of governance in China, socialism, advocates for public and common ownership and allocation of resources to all irrespective of status.
There have been key events in Chinese culture history that have had profound impact on shaping it to what it is now. First was the Declaration by Mao Zedong of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949 and his subsequent trip to Russia to negotiate a treaty with Stalin. Second, the signing of the Sino-Soviet treaty in February of 1950, these two events had great impact as china finally became a republic moving away from the imperialistic form of government that had been in place for decades.
Other key events that helped shape modern Chinese culture were the death of Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989 and the subsequent Tiananmen Square demonstrations of June 3, 1989 by Chinese students who felt let down by the government. The students were calling for press freedom, political reforms, political and social change and an end to corruption. These two incidents really took their toll on the government as ties with the soviet were also deteriorating.4
Management system-case study: Spain
Management systems in Spain stresses on all personnel having very distinctive roles in the organization. This is characterized by its focus on rules, a hierarchical structure, delegation of duties, a structure of authority, and lifelong career commitments for its workers5.
A lot of emphasis is put on how you present yourself as this is very important in passing on information in a context where verbal communication is very minimal and emphasis is more on non-verbal (body language), for instance direct eye contact, firm handshakes, proper grooming. Your mode of dressing and respect for fellow colleagues, employers and business associates is very necessary and one has to have understood the formality level required in business undertakings within an organization.
The Spanish manager is required to have good personal attributes such as courage, honor, trust and acceptance of importance of leadership, and not just technical competence and brilliance. Understanding the management style and its operations is very important as it determines success in achieving the organization’s set down goals and objectives. Managers in Spain are believed by their subordinates to be more knowledgeable and experienced6.
They tend to have a more paternalistic approach towards their juniors which sometimes goes against professional guidelines unlike the British who are non emotive and have dry and emotionless comments. This peculiarity in personnel leads to a relationship oriented, fluid time culture where deadlines are flexible and are usually set in advance. This is due to the fact that one doesn’t want to upset his associates due to certain set deadlines not being met.
Spanish management style characterized by, decisions being made at the top and trickle down to the juniors but room created for consultations despite the boss having the final word on organizational matters, it is important as resultant synergies are formed.
Spanish management systems stress much importance on personal character therefore the Spanish manager will take time to learn and get to know their business associates. Working or relating with someone of the same rank is given much thought and importance as the hierarchical mode of management and rank take center stage in Spanish management world.
Spain is not quite up to performance contracting, these types of contracts are still in development stages. Despite this the government is encouraging mangers to take up this as a new and innovative form of management so as to maximize on efficiency and output within organizations. The organizational environment in Spain is not quiet tolerant to risk and managerial change thus a lot of sensitivity is needed when handling business associates.
The Spanish manager lives in constant fear of failure and embarrassment. Lack of skills to comply with set down procedures rather than being controlled by results and scarcity of resources hampers effective implementation and managing of performance contacts and agreements. Performance contracts are restricted to specific areas and approach to how they are implemented is usually bureaucratic. Excessive information asymmetries are also a huge barrier to implementing performance contracts fully.
Although there have been instances where hierarchical management systems are termed as outdated it seems to work well in this setting. Spanish managers are comfortable with this mode of structure as it defines each person’s specific roles and duties within the organization. A hierarchical structure ensures a complete control of the organization.
The hierarchical mode of management focuses on creating a flexible and receptive working environment so as to ensure maximum output and participation from their workers. It also strives to put in place a great management team that are good communicators and have the ability to harness the best from their teams. The Spanish manager in this type of structure is expected to lead by example as his subordinates look up to him to guide them and he is seen to be in that top position because of vast knowledge and experience.
Active participation is paramount from both the management and the employees. This led to the emergence of consultations between the two groups, even though final decisions still remain with the person at the top of the hierarchy. Workers feel that they also have a voice in the making of decisions of an organization and this helps curb cases of labour strikes and protests.
It is important to note that management was completely authoritarian not long ago and this led to confrontations between employees and employers. This can also be said of the most of Europe during the industrial revolution in the early 1800s, where workers began to be enlightened on their rights and what was expected of both them and their employers. This led to constant strikes by workers which paralyzed production of goods and services and sometimes were violent.
Authority was solely based at the top and there were no consultations. The change in political dynamics in the country had a profound impact on the management style which had to both evolve and be able to offer solutions to workers’ plight or become redundant.
Thus it moved from authoritarian to a hierarchical system with the boss expected to manage his juniors, harness and put together the positive aspects of members of his group, while subordinates are expected to respect the management. Thus the approach used by management in Spain to listen to its workers despite having final word on issues.7
Conclusion
Evolvement of management in relation to Chinese culture
Management has evolved and gone through a radical transformation just like Chinese culture. Major principles from the Confucian religion of china emphasizing relationships, teamwork and strong corporate cultures have been used to highlight the redefining of modern management and are gaining much popularity among modern day managers.
Just like Chinese culture, management has changed from full authoritarian (in late nineteenth century after the industrial revolution) where no questions asked, to a consultation based framework of arriving at decisions. This can be distinctively compared to the prior imperial Chinese dynasties and kingdoms that shaped and paved way for modern Chinese culture8.
Modern managers are constantly focusing their attention in understanding Asian based culture and religion in an attempt to mould management methods on Asian philosophies. Another connection between Chinese culture and management evolution is the increased volume of trade and direct foreign investment between the west and east. This has led managers to seek ways of understanding the Chinese culture and borrowing from it in order to try and fill the cultural gap.
The Chinese culture’s ability to undergo changes and adapt to different environments over such a long period of time and still remain one of the world’s leading cultures, makes the west want to understand the Chinese mindset. Presence of great thinkers in both Chinese culture and evolution of management has helped shape both entities to what they are in the modern world today.
Modern management focuses on characteristics such as individual behaviors and values, leadership style and skills, and interpersonal relations within an organization; all these are connected to Confucian principles that modeled much of Chinese culture. The continuous growth of Chinese economy can be attributed solely to the Confucian culture which is viewed like constructive influence over Chinese management style and growth.
Management and especially western managers will benefit by embracing the Confucian principles and becoming more of Confucian in their attitude due to the fact that Chinese culture powered by deep historical and cultural roots and identities is bound to be here in the probable future
Another point to note in modern day management is commitment to excellence, emphasis on trust, reliability and loyalty within the work place, which can also be connected to the Confucian commerce based working ethic. The Chun Tzu and Shih concepts are the bases for individual and interpersonal skills/ behaviors stressing on moral excellence and good faith.
Modern management uses teamwork and communication as an advantage in achieving goals while traditional management focused its energies on planning, administration organizing and total control over the work process.
Just as Chinese culture evolved from ca. 2100-ca. 1600 BC to its modern form, management has undergone changes that were necessary for it to be able to address issues that affect both workers and employers today. With gradual change of management, emphasis is now focused on consistency and efficiency. Although modern management systems may have its drawbacks such as rigidity and its slow approach, it focuses on the whole organization’s output.
Bibliography
Chang , TH, China during the cultural revolution, Issue 3, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, CT, 1999.
Chien-nung Li, Li, J, TĂŞng S & Ingalls, J, The political history of China, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA , 1956.
Holley, WH, Jennings, MK & Wolters, RS, The Labor Relations Process, 9, Cengage Learning, Stamford, CT, 2008.
Hutchings, G, Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change, illustrated, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts, 2003.
John, N. Intercultural management, Kogan Page Publishers, Pentonville Rd, London , 2003.
Williams , JA, Politics in China: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 2010.
Needle, D, Business in Context, 5, CENGAGE Learning, Boston, MA, 2010.
Steers, M,R, Sanchez-Runde, J, C & Nardon, L, Management Across Cultures: Challenges and Strategies ,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,2010.
Footnotes
1 Chien-nung, L. TĂŞng, J. & Ingalls, J. The political history of China, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA , 1956, p. 69.
2 Hutchings, G. Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change, illustrated, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts, 2003, p. 125.
3 Chang, T. China during the cultural revolution, Issue 3, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, CT, 1999, p. 98.
4 Steers, M. Sanchez-Runde, J. & Nardon, L. Management Across Cultures: Challenges and Strategies ,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,2010.
5 Williams, J. Politics in China: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 2010, p. 287.
6 Needle, D. Business in Context, 5, CENGAGE Learning, Boston, MA, 2010, p. 203.
7 John, N. Intercultural management, Kogan Page Publishers, Pentonville Rd, London , 2003.
8 Holley, W. Jennings, M. K. & Wolters, R. The Labor Relations Process, 9, Cengage Learning, Stamford, CT, 2008, p. 103.