Introduction
The end of the 19th century and the early 20th century saw America experience disasters that almost paralyzed the country. America experienced some of the worst floods and earthquakes in the 19th and 20th centuries, which led to the loss of lives, destruction of property, and interference with lifelines. Therefore, the government, through legislative and executive orders, developed several programs to manage serious catastrophes such as floods, earthquakes, and man-made hazards that threatened livelihoods. The purpose of the programs would be to coordinate the various levels of government in the preparation and management of disasters, assist the victims, and develop strategic plans for the prevention of future calamities. The programs included the Flood Control Act of 1936, the Hazard Mitigation Act of 2000, the National Earthquake Reduction Act of 1977, and the Disaster Relief Act, among others.
Flood Control Act of 1936
The program was developed by the Legislative branch through the Act of the United States Congress and overseen by President Roosevelt, who signed it into law. The act was one of the many programs developed to manage the flood problem, which was common towards the end of the 19th century and early 20th century (March et al., 2022). The program put all the civil engineering flood projects under the management of the United States Army Corps of Engineers with the help of some Federal Agencies.
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Numerous cases of flood disasters at the end of the 18th and early 20th centuries contributed to the loss of lives, property destruction, and interference with lifelines. Thus, the government developed the FCA program to delegate flood management to the military department (Mach et al., 2022). The military would oversee the improvement of rivers and other waterways to control floods. In addition, the program assigned the U.S. Department of Agriculture the role of managing watersheds and soil erosion to control floods.
Impact and Effectiveness
The FCA program helped to protect the people and their properties against the common flood disaster. The act obligated the Federal government to protect citizens and their properties within a radius of 100 million acres (Mach et al., 2022). In addition, the Federal government would compensate the victims and assist the affected group, thereby reducing the impact of the disaster on the people and their livelihood.
The program introduced numerous measures that helped to reduce and manage flood disasters. The Corps of Engineers constructed numerous projects, such as levees, flood walls, and dams, which reduced floods (Mach et al., 2022). Similarly, the Corps of Engineers improved the existing projects to the required standard. In addition, the Department of Agriculture initiated land measures, such as watersheds, that helped to reduce flood disasters.
Earthquake Reduction Act of 1977
The program was developed in 1977 by the Act of Congress to mitigate the impact of the earthquake. It brought an earthquake prediction system, a national earthquake reduction program, and seismological studies to mitigate the causes and impact of earthquakes on people (Albulescu, 2023). In addition, the program liaised with other provisions, such as the Disaster Relief Act of 1974, to help and provide for the victims of earthquakes.
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The 19th and 20th centuries saw America witness a series of natural calamities. The country was facing numerous earthquake accidents and related hazards, which contributed to massive loss of lives, destruction of properties, displacement, and interference with lifelines (Albulescu, 2023). Thus, the Act of Congress developed a statute program to reduce and mitigate earthquake disasters and related hazards through prediction, studies, and management of earthquakes.
Impact and Effectiveness
The program facilitated measures such as structural construction and the redevelopment of land use, which helped to reduce the cases and impact of earthquakes. For example, people embraced structural construction techniques, which reduced the impact of earthquakes (Albulecu, 2023). In addition, the program brought prediction techniques and studies that helped to prepare for and manage earthquakes. In collaboration with the Disaster Relief Act, the program helped the victims of earthquakes through state assistance.
Hazard Mitigation Act
The program was developed in 2000 under Federal legislation to organize the preparation, planning, response, and mitigation of disasters. It brought together state, local, tribal, and federal governments for disaster preparation, response, management, and prevention by coordinating all the agencies and individuals at the various levels that take part in mitigation (Seong et al., 2022). The activities include rewarding and assisting the organizations and individuals involved in the process.
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Constant disasters in the 20th century were characterized by loss of lives, property destruction, and displacement of people. Thus, the federal government developed an anticipatory program to help the public and the various levels of administration to prepare, prevent, and manage the hazards (Seong et al., 2022). The Hazard Mitigation Act would sensitize the public, coordinate the government responses, and rally all players towards preparation, response, and prevention of disasters.
Impact and Effectiveness
The program has facilitated disaster prevention by initiating planning and zoning of exposed areas, open preservation, structural constructions such as protective buildings, soil erosion management, fire fuel reduction, and sediment control, among other prevention measures. Similarly, the program has managed to bring about projects such as dams, dykes, spillways, seawalls, levees, and debris basins, which have helped to mitigate and reduce the impact of disasters such as floods.
Disaster Relief Act of 1970
The program was established in 1970 to provide necessary assistance to individuals, organizations, businesses, states, and local communities affected by calamities. Some communities have their tax base destroyed due to factors such as hunger and unemployment, among other economic challenges, limiting their operations (Brennan et al., 2022). Similarly, destroyed public properties such as bridges may require assistance from the federal government for renewal and rebuilding.
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Disasters were characterized by huge impact on the people, including property destruction and loss of lives. Victims were left in desperate conditions and in dire need of help. Therefore, there was a need for the federal government to provide financial assistance to the affected people during and after the catastrophe (Brennan et al., 2022). The Disaster Relief Act was thus to authorize the federal government to provide financial assistance to disaster victims.
Impact and Effectiveness
The Disaster Relief Act has made it possible to help the victims of various catastrophes, thus reducing the impact on the people, communities, states, and local governments. Regions that have suffered damage to their essential projects, such as bridges, have been facilitated in rebuilding (Brennan et al., 2022). Similarly, states or local governments whose tax bases are destroyed enjoy financial relief, enabling them to sustain their functions.
FEMA
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was formed in 1978 under an executive order during President Jimmy Carter’s administration. Due to the massive impact of man-made and natural disasters, there was a need for a body to provide emergency relief to the people (Margus et al., 2023). Therefore, the president, through an executive order, created FEMA to help people before, during, and after disasters.
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The 20th century witnessed a series of hazards that had a massive impact on people through injury, property destruction, and displacement. The disasters destroyed the livelihoods of many individuals and left them desperate for help (Margus et al., 2023). Thus, the president, through an executive order, created FEMA to provide emergency help to disaster victims before, during, and after the pandemic so that they could resume their livelihoods.
Impact and Effectiveness
FEMA has reduced the impact of disasters on people by assisting the victims. The program has been providing relief such as food, finance, shelter, and jobs to the affected people, thus reducing the impact of the catastrophe (Margus et al., 2023). For example, flood victims are given financial relief, food, and means for resettlement. Similarly, people affected by earthquakes or storms are helped through emergency relief.
Stafford Act
The program was established in 1988 under the United States Federal Law to coordinate the various levels of government in disaster response and management. Due to constant hazards in the 20th century, Congress wanted to involve the lower levels of administration in the prevention and management of disasters through the preparation and assistance of the victims (Atkinson, 2023). The program derives its name from Senator Robert T. Stafford, who oversaw its legislation.
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Due to their serious impact and the huge number of victims, the burden of managing disasters such as floods was overwhelming to the tribal, local, and state governments. Therefore, Senator Robert T. Stafford proposed a law compelling the federal government to support the lower administrations during catastrophes (Atkinson, 2023). The Stafford Act was created to oversee the federal government’s assistance to state and local governments and non-profit organizations during disasters.
Impact and Effectiveness
The program has enabled the various levels of government to join and participate in the prevention and management of disasters. After the president declares a disaster emergency, the various administrations from local, tribal, and state governments coordinate in responding to the problem by providing financial and other emergency relief (Atkinson, 2023). Similarly, the various governments collaborate in hazard mitigation by initiating preparation measures accordingly.
Unresolved Issues of the Programs
Inadequate Funds
The program experiences financial challenges in its operation. Due to the series of disasters and the massive number of victims, the program is likely to be overwhelmed by the people’s needs since the available funds cannot sustain its activities (Atkinson, 2023). For instance, storms are characterized by massive destruction of properties and livelihoods, leaving many people in dire need of sustainable assistance from the government.
High Cost
Most of the projects under the programs incurred excessive costs that exceeded their benefits. Projects such as dams, dykes, flood walls, and levees consumed a lot of finances in their construction and management (March et al., 2022). In addition, the activities of the programs, such as emergency relief, including financial assistance, accommodation, relocation, and resettlement of the victims, consume excessive funds, which are not sustainable.
Summary
The 18th and 20th centuries were characterized by numerous disasters such as floods, earthquakes, and terrorism, which forced the various government levels to take proactive approaches to the hazards. Congress and the Executive coordinated to develop several programs to prepare, manage, and mitigate the catastrophes. Some of the programs included the Hazard Mitigation Act, Earthquake Reduction Act, FCA, FEMA, Stafford Act, and the Disaster Relief Act. The programs have helped to prepare, manage, and mitigate disasters.
References
Albulescu, A. C. (2023). Open source data-based solutions for identifying patterns of urban earthquake systemic vulnerability in high-seismicity areas. Remote Sensing, 15(5), 1453. Web.
Atkinson, C. L. (2023). Local government emergency management. Encyclopedia, 3(1), 1-14. Web.
Brennan, M., Mehta, A., & Steil, J. (2022). In harm’s way? The effect of disasters on the magnitude and location of low‐income housing tax credit allocations. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 41(2), 486-514. Web.
Mach, K. J., Hino, M., Siders, A. R., Koller, S. F., Kraan, C. M., Niemann, J., & Sanders, B. F. (2022). From flood control to flood adaptation. In H. Shugart et al. (Eds.), Oxford research encyclopedia of environmental science. Web.
Margus, C., Hertelendy, A., Tao, Y., Coltey, E., Chen, S. C., Luis, S., & Ciottone, G. R. (2023). United States Federal Emergency Management Agency regional clustering by disaster exposure: A new paradigm for disaster response. Natural Hazards, 1-19. Web.
Seong, K., Losey, C., & Gu, D. (2022). Naturally resilient to natural hazards? Urban–rural disparities in hazard mitigation grant program assistance. Housing Policy Debate, 32(1), 190-210. Web.