Research related to food sensory properties has explored the peculiarities of taste, colour, texture, and even sounds of consumed products. The food industry has contributed greatly to the development of sophisticated research methods used to examine food attributes since manufacturers tried to identify the characteristics that would make products more attractive to consumers (Norton et al. 2014).
Although many definitions of the term exist, for the purpose of this study, food texture can be defined as a feature that “can influence oral processing behaviours, food perception and expectations of fullness” (Forde et al. 2017, p. 596). Extensive research into the link between food texture and health outcomes offers numerous strategies that can improve many people’s dietary intake and status. This review is concerned with the latest advances in food texture research including the existing classifications, methodologies, as well as the associated implications for health care.
History of Food Texture Research
For centuries, people have implemented numerous gastronomical experiments related to food texture to satisfy their dietary needs and preferences (Dar & Light 2014). However, the research of food texture started relatively recently, in the 19th century, when the major focus was on particular products (e.g. bread dough, fruit, or meat) rather than on generalised aspects. Scientists identified attributes of specific products (apples, poultry, and so forth) and largely neglected sensory categories (e.g. hardness and fluidity) (Timbers & Voisey 2017).
In the middle of the 1800s, German scientists relied on the product-centred approach and measured jellies firmness with the help of mechanical tests. In the early 1900s, American and European researchers developed systematic measurements and texture optimisation methods of grains, fruit, butter, and dairy products to name a few. The most common instrumentation included the Warner-Bratzler meat shear test that measures the force necessary to cut meat and fruit pressure test (Timbers & Voisey 2017). Food texture has received considerable attention of scholars in the middle of the 20th century. The primary focus was on flavours, smells, and colour schemes (Nishinari & Fang 2018).
People’s preferences and their dietary habits were explored, and the results of these studies were mainly employed in food production and marketing. Scientists’ interest in food texture increased in the second part of the 20th century. As described by Nishinari and Fang (2018), the central role Alina Szczesniak played in the development of texture research. This renowned food scientist pioneered the field, defined the term and characterised various implications food texture could have.
These days, food texture is explored within the scope of such fields as marketing, healthcare (various areas including nutrition and dentistry), and food production (Nishinari & Fang 2018; Heath 2016). The research accumulated during the past decades can now be utilised to design foods that can have a positive impact on people’s health (Norton et al. 2014). Many food scientists explore the relationships between sensory properties of food and obesity, dysphagia, or nutritional intake and satiation (Kilara & Sengupta 2014; Cichero et al. 2016).
Some researchers are more concerned about addressing the needs of specific populations such as children or older adults. For instance, Nederkoorn, Jansen and Havermans (2015) examine the link between food texture and children’s eating behaviours (picky eating). New facets of food texture and its effects on people’s health and behaviours are highlighted and used for different purposes.
Sensory Properties of Food
Focus on Texture
People’s food-related choices largely depend on the sensory properties of the products they consume. Such qualities as taste, smell, colour, and texture guide people’s eating habits. It has been acknowledged that age is one of the most influential factors affecting the way individuals develop their food preferences (Appleton et al. 2019). Taste is traditionally regarded as the primary food attribute shaping people’s dietary intake, which ensured considerable attention of food scientists (Lease et al. 2016). Smell and colour have also been seen as essential qualities of foods. These features are closely related to people’s senses, so the primary attention is paid to these properties. It is acknowledged that people’s dietary habits are mainly shaped by these food traits.
Texture used to be somewhat neglected and under-researched for decades (Timbers & Voisey 2017). It is now considered that food production and marketing are responsible for the increase in attention towards food texture (Norton et al. 2014). On the contrary, the lack of proper methodologies that could be used to explore this sensory property is one of the reasons behind the insufficient focus on texture in the 19th and the first part of the 20th centuries. Modern technology and science can equip researchers with sophisticated instruments that can unveil the most valuable peculiarities of texture.
Types of Texture, Existing Measurements, and Descriptions
As far as texture types are concerned, different classifications and definitions are often employed. However, the primary properties always include hardness, moistness, mass cohesiveness, and fatty mouthfeel (see Table 1) (Lease et al. 2016). Such food scientists as Szczesniak and other scholars identified the central role hardness plays in people’s dietary intake and, hence, its specific influence on people’s health outcomes (Nishinari & Fang 2018). Food hardness has a considerable impact on eating rate, and it is often an influential factor affecting people’s food choices due to individuals’ certain physiological peculiarities (Bolhuis et al. 2014). For instance, some may have dental issues making harder foods inappropriate or causing discomfort (Heath 2016).
Table 1. Some of the Existing Classifications.
It is necessary to note that the classification developed by Szczesniak was widely used in the middle of the 20th century and became the foundation of later frameworks. Hayakawa (2015) states that Szczesniak’s characterisation was based on people’s perceptions and confined to the English language. Linguistic features of this, as well as any other, classification are often seen as certain limitations (Diederich 2015; Hayakawa 2015).
Initially, the food scientist divided sensory properties related to texture into geometrical, mechanical, and moisture. Later, the classification included rating scales that consisted of such parameters as hardness, chewiness, brittleness, viscosity, adhesiveness, and gumminess. This classification became a long-awaited methodology that became widely used in many spheres (Lease et al. 2016). However, Hayakawa (2015) argues that this characterisation is not applicable in the modern world due to the changes that have taken place in food production. At the same time, modified variations of the classification of Szczesniak and colleagues are utilised these days.
Researchers have developed several characterisations that are often applied in different settings depending on the purpose of the study. Sherman’s classification is characterised by a considerable focus on rheology (Lease et al. 2016). According to this framework, texture features are analysed in terms of the following phases: initial perception, perception on palate, mastication, and “residual masticatory impression” (Hayakawa 2015, p. 5).
Texture transforms and is perceived differently during the mentioned stages (Nishinari & Fang 2018). Such categories as solid (further divided into hard and soft), semi-solid, and fluid were identified as major texture properties. According to Hayakawa (2015), that Sherman’s and Szczesniak’s texture profile share some features in common, but the former’s framework is more detailed due to the division into different phases.
One of the newest classifications is based on Szczesniak’s and Sherman’s paradigms. Food texture properties are divided into three major groups: mechanical, geometrical, and other characteristics (Hayakawa 2015). These attributes are further grouped into primary and secondary parameters, visual, surface, partial compression, first bite, chewdown, and residual. As far as other characteristics are concerned, these include moisture and fat content, as well as sound. Although this classification seems comprehensive, Steele et al. (2015) argue that there is a need for characterisations of fluid and food behaviour in terms of physiological processes. The processes that take place in the oral cavity can have a substantial influence on the way food texture is perceived.
Many researchers have tried to develop the corresponding lexicons to meet the needs of texture-related studies (Lease et al. 2016). Since texture attributes are reliant on people’s perceptions, the development of a universal classification that could satisfy the needs and expectations of all stakeholders worldwide is still ongoing. Cichero et al. (2016) studied classifications and terminology utilised by patients with dysphagia, their caregivers, and people addressing their needs from almost 60 countries.
The researchers offer a framework for these populations that can be employed internationally. Nevertheless, one of the major difficulties is associated with linguistic differences that can be difficult to address (Diederich 2015).
The existence of international standards is beneficial for diverse groups especially when it comes to the healthcare settings or vulnerable groups. However, the use of these guidelines can be problematic on a regional basis as these frameworks need to be translated into various languages. In some cases, people simply fail to find the most appropriate alternatives, have to use English equivalents, and can find it difficult to translate into English the perceptions of the participants of their studies.
Major Definitions
Several definitions of food texture addressing different aspects have been developed (see Table 2). Larmond (2016) provides a detailed analysis of some of the most common definitions. The majority of food texture explanations address three features including its physical nature, its complexity, and relatedness to senses (Larmond 2016). Some researchers, however, concentrate on one or two aspects, which brings certain confusion. For instance, Peleg (2017, p.3) notes that “textural properties” are defined as “sensations” perceived by the nervous system, while physical attributes (such as viscosity) are excluded from the general definition.
Larmond (2016) notes that this approach to defining sensory properties of food can be defined by the peculiarities of certain products and their most pronounced or valuable aspects. For example, people pay attention to meat tenderness or cracker crispness, which makes scholars analyse these qualities (Timbers & Voisey 2017). Sometimes new textures are developed to attract consumers’ attention and entice them to buy the new product. Researchers also concentrate on a limited number of characteristics depending on the scope of their studies.
As far as the existing classifications are concerned, it is necessary to consider the ones suggested by international institutions and those developed by researchers. According to the International Organisation for Standardisation, food texture is a set of “rheological and structural (geometric and surface) attributes of a food product perceptible by means of mechanical, tactile and where appropriate, visual and auditory receptors” (cited in Larmond 2016, p. 449).
Szczesniak came up with a comprehensive explanation of the concept. In terms of this description, food texture can be referred to as the traits that “arise from the structural elements of food and the manner in which it registers with the physiological senses” (cited in Larmond 2016, p. 450). Forde et al. (2017, p. 596) see food texture as a “functional feature” that “can influence oral processing behaviours, food perception and expectations of fullness.” The employed definition addresses the needs of the study, so specific facets are highlighted. This approach is quite common among modern food scientists who try to address specific aspects of food texture.
Table 2. Some of the Existing Definitions.
Relationship Between Food Texture and Health Outcomes Related to Excessive Body Weight
Overweight/Obesity Prevention Treatment
Obesity is characterised by a high degree of comorbidity as it is associated with the development of numerous cardiovascular illnesses, mood disorders, and other diseases (Apovian 2016). This health concern is regarded as one of the most serious public health issues in most regions of the world (Miquel-Kergoat et al. 2015). This health issue affects people of different ages, ethnicities, and genders, but some vulnerable populations can still be identified (McClements 2015).
Certain cultural peculiarities and individuals’ socioeconomic status are associated with higher risks of having excessive weight (Tovar & Must 2014). For instance, Hispanics believe that children should be plump and good appetite is an index of health. Obesity has also become a considerable burden on countries’ budgets, so this illness is now seen as a matter of public health.
The availability of food products and cultural peculiarities are not the only reasons behind the existing health trends. The focus on healthy eating that is a feature of the modern society facilitates the development of new methodologies and strategies that can help people remain fit (Norton et al. 2014). Food texture and other sensory properties have a considerable effect on people’s food intake, which make food texture an important element of obesity prevention methods (Bolhuis et al. 2014). It has been demonstrated that food texture can have quite a direct effect on such aspects as satiation, satiety, and food intake (see Table 3) (Miquel-Kergoat et al. 2015).
Chewing is one of the processes that can help people control their appetite as well as the amount of consumed food (Hayakawa 2015). It is found that prolonged chewing tends to reduce food intake, and it also enhances satiety and hormone release (Miquel-Kergoat et al. 2015). Therefore, food texture can be used as a method to control food intake as the harder products are, the smaller amount of food will be consumed, which will help people control their weight.
Table 3. The Relationship Between Food Texture and Dietary Intake.
The close link between nutritional intake and obesity have been in the lenses of many researchers. The relationship between the two variables has been examined, but the dietary intake and its influence on people’s weight should be further investigated in terms of energy intake (Apovian 2016). It is important to address such aspects as meals size, energy intake, people’s preferences, physiological peculiarities and oral cavity processes, and many other factors related to the matter (Hogenkamp 2014). It is also beneficial to link the available advances of the research on food texture and the data related to obesity and dietary intake. For instance, it can be effective to explore different types of texture and its impact on people with different body weight status.
Dietary Intake and Food Texture
In many cases, dietary intake is not central to people’s dietary choices although consumers tend to pay much attention to this matter (Norton et al. 2014). Hogenkamp (2014) found that individuals tried to shape their meal size based on food texture and nutritional value, but multiple exposures to similar stimuli resulted in people’s return to their preferences and dietary habits. In this research, participants received two preloads of congruent and two preloads of incongruent combinations of nine subsequent meals.
The congruent combination of the consumed food was characterised by low-energy and liquid form and high-energy and semi-solid texture. The incongruent preloads were low-energy in a liquid form and high-energy and liquid texture. The participants first chose food based on the preferences, but by the end of the experiment they consumed meals depending on food satiating capacity.
The concept of food intake is related to palatability as individuals eat larger portions of food they consider to be palatable (Pritchard et al. 2014). McCrickerd and Forde (2015) argue that it is insufficient to create food textures that could lead to the development of healthy dietary practices. The authors stress that food texture research should aim at developing sensory properties as well as dietary patterns that would promote proper nutritional intake and memory for eating instead of the focus on foods palatability.
People may be informed about the nutrient values and satiety of different foods, as well as the way texture affects food intake, which will result in shaping people’s behaviours. People will be able to choose food and meal sizes that will ensure maximum satiation and minimum food intake, while palatability will receive a lower priority.
Some researchers go further and suggest the development of specific foods that could be instrumental in shaping people’s food intake. For example, it is possible to design foods that would be characterised by certain attributes that, in their turn, would address the needs of different populations (Campbell, Wagoner & Foegeding 2017). The authors insist that the research on such physiological aspects of oral processing as tongue or jaw movement, as well as muscle activity, can contribute substantially to the understanding of the correlation between satiation, food texture, and dietary intake.
Influence of Food Texture on Food Choices
Food scientists who concentrate on the connection between obesity and food intake explore the features of different types of food texture and their impact on people’s dietary behaviours. The eating rate is regarded as one of the aspects affecting dietary food intake. The pace at which meals are consumed correlates with the size of meals and food intake (Forde et al. 2017; Pritchard et al. 2014).
The so-called slow foods are associated with maximised fullness and decreased meals sizes, which is regarded as an important value to be employed when developing strategies to improve dietary intake (Forde et al. 2017). This is supported by McCrickerd et al. (2017), and they report that higher eating rates are associated with smaller portions and improved energy intake. Recent research suggests that people tend to believe that thicker foods are more nutritional and associated with higher level of satiety. These beliefs appear to be strong and difficult to change (McCrickerd et al. 2017).
Importantly, eating rate and hardness of foods had long-term effects on people’s dietary habits. As mentioned above, the focus on energy intake and desire to have healthier eating patterns made people improve their dietary intake in the short-term perspective (Hogenkamp 2014). Bolhuis et al. (2014) identified the ways long-term effects regarding people’s food choices could be attained. People having eating disorders or those who want to lose weight may consume harder foods that are associated with a higher degree of satiety. The researchers emphasise that the modification of food texture can have a lasting effect on dietary intake.
Oral processing is linked to products’ hardness and is one of the primary factors shaping people’s dietary and energy intake (Bolhuis et al. 2014). It has also been found that personal traits and preferences tend to shape people’s behaviours (McCrickerd et al. 2017).
In addition to the analysis of eating rate and its influence on dietary intake and status, food researchers explore other qualities of products that could have positive health outcomes. McClements (2015) pays specific attention to such aspects of food attributes as sensory profiles (texture, aroma, mouthfeel, and taste) and physicochochemical features (rheology, optical aspects, molecular distribution, and stability). It is suggested that it is possible to create foods containing a lower level of fat and having similar features.
People do not maintain healthy eating habits since fat-free or fat-reduced products differ from original products considerably in terms of their psychochemical qualities and sensory profiles, which diverts individuals from consuming them (McClements 2015). The proposed framework can be instrumental in developing items that will help people control their nutritional intake, which is critical for overweight and obese persons.
Forde et al. (2017) provide insights into the natural sensory properties of major Asian foods. It is reported that the region is characterised by quite specific products and dietary practices, which makes it essential to classify the sensory properties of these foods. This information can be utilised to develop dietary guidelines for different populations according to their needs. Kokini and Cussler (2017) also address the ways psychological traits affect the way foods are consumed and food texture is perceived. The researchers argue that the changes in food texture are associated with the shifts in people’s taste perceptions. These findings are consistent with the results of some other studies (works by Hogenkamp (2014) or McClements (2015)), and the influence of personality traits on people’s perception of food texture are mentioned.
Common Research Methods Associated with the Influence of Food Texture on Food Intake, and Energy Balance and Obesity
Quantitative research methods remain central to this area, but qualitative tools are also often employed especially when it comes to people’s perceptions and attitudes towards various issues related to food. The development of classifications is also based on the use of qualitative methodology. Kemp et al. (2018) claim that descriptive analysis is commonly employed in food texture research and is characterised by the presence of quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Issanchou (2018) also stresses that quantitative and qualitative data can be explored with the help of this kind of methodology that enables researchers to identify the peculiarities of consumption, establish standards and scales, and assess different properties. It is noteworthy that the studies related to dietary intake and health issues are often based on the descriptive analysis.
The value of descriptive methods lies in their ability to identify specific attributes and classify them. In many cases, descriptive analysis is employed to reveal certain aspects and people’s preferences (Issanchou 2018; Kemp et al. 2018). Ho (2015) notes that such experimental tools as the Spectrum™ Method or the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis are complex variations of descriptive methods. These frameworks are utilised in many studies that focus on specific types of texture and characterisations. Principal component analysis is often utilised in food texture research and serves to compare products and their attributes. This instrument is specifically valuable for marketers who try to identify the most valuable properties of products.
It is necessary to add that researchers are now equipped with various tools regarding food texture ranging from people’s perceptions to instrumental texture analysis methods. For example, Paula and Conti-Silva (2014) used Warner-Bratzler meat shear test to identify certain characteristics of snacks, so researchers managed to avoid the bias related to people’s perceptions. However, it is also important to add that people’s perceptions will still occupy a considerable part of the scientific enquiry related to food texture as the way texture is perceived by people is often the primary focus of studies.
Apart from specific studies, numerous institutions provide reports concerning a variety of issues. In order to illustrate this trend, the report by the Irish Universities Nutrition Alliance (2012) can be considered. Inferential statistics can be regarded as another method typical of food texture and dietary intake research. Researchers test hypotheses and identify correlations between different aspects with the help of this methodology.
T-tests and ANOVA tests are employed to analyse the information available from interval and category scales (Ho 2015). The studies by McCrickerd et al. (2017) and Hogenkamp (2014) illustrate the use of inferential statistics as the primary data analysis method. The researchers explore the relationship between certain variables to identify the way sensory properties of food influences people’s dietary intake. The variables are manipulated in different ways, and the links between food texture and people’s dietary behaviours are detected and analysed.
The choice of the utilised methodology depends on the goals established by researchers and the hypothesis to be checked. However, researchers also agree that irrespective of the chosen instruments, scholars should be properly trained to utilise these methods (Ho 2015; Issanchou 2018; Kemp et al. 2018). Scholars should consider numerous factors that can have an effect on findings. Such aspects as temperature, humidity, and other physical features should be properly described to ensure the validity of experiments.
When human participants are involved, it is critical to pay attention to the use of terminology and samples’ linguistic status, participants’ and researchers’ training, and people’s ability to describe verbally sensory properties (Muñoz et al. 2018). Moreover, people’s physiological peculiarities can also have an impact on the reliability of data since people tend to have different sensitivities due to their age or gender, samples can be hungry or have a personal liking and disliking for certain products (Issanchou 2018). All these details may have diverse effects on food texture research.
As far as qualitative tools are concerned, these are mainly used to identify people’s views and attitudes towards different issues as well as create classifications. Moskowitz and Jacobs (2017) illustrate various strategies that can be utilised to examine consumers’ views on food texture and different ways the findings can be employed. Textual information is analysed, and researchers identify the most valued properties or people’s concerns associated with food.
However, these methods are not confined to food production and marketing. The data can be valuable for the research related to health care. The exploration of people’s perspectives concerning food texture can be instrumental in recognising diverse motivations behind people’s dietary choices and behaviours. It is also essential to analyse people’s views regarding the way food (and food texture) affects their health. This information will also shed light on individuals’ impetus.
Aims
The review of the literature on food texture and its relationship with dietary intake and people’s health outcomes unveiled some gaps in the knowledge base on the matter. One of the primary limitations to food texture research is the lack of the universal classification and terminology that could be applied in various settings. Researchers tend to use existing characterisations or develop their own frameworks, which adds certain confusion.
As far as the corresponding terminology is concerned, it is noteworthy that scholars attempt to establish clear and comprehensive paradigms consistent with the accepted international standards. Furthermore, food texture, as well as some products, can be region specific, so it is essential to make sure that every sensory property and each product are properly analysed and described. For instance, Forde et al. (2017) try to close the gaps related to the Asian region, but these are only initial steps in addressing the existing limitations. It is important to make sure that the sensory properties of different products (especially those specific to certain regions) are analysed and included in the existing pool of terms and characterisations.
Another gap is associated with the methodology employed when studying food texture. Although some technology-based methods to identify sensory properties are developed, the research still relies heavily on people’s perceptions, which can hardly be avoided in many cases. It is impossible to explore people’s preferences or dietary habits without exploring people’s views on some attributes. However, people’s perceptions are associated with a considerable degree of bias, which has to be addressed. Specific strategies and methods to mitigate the adverse effects of the mentioned bias are needed. Again, the analysis of the perspectives of people living in different regions can help researchers identify some universal attributes and minimise the bias mentioned above.
As far as the relationship between food texture and health outcomes is concerned, the major focus has proved to be on the analysis of eating rate and its effects on people’s health. Another widely explored topic is the link between food texture and satiation. The implications for the development of healthy dietary habits aimed at addressing the problem of obesity are discussed. Nevertheless, other aspects remain largely under-researched.
For instance, psychological aspects are often ignored, but they tend to play an important role in people’s dietary intake and health status. Hogenkamp (2014) maintains that food texture has an influence on dietary intake, but people tend to return to their initial practices and habits rather soon. Moreover, it is found that food texture can shape the way foods are perceived, which can affect people’s dietary habits (Kokini & Cussler 2017). Therefore, it can be necessary to include the discussion of psychological peculiarities in the study of the link between food texture and health outcomes.
Finally, different demographic features of people should be inherent in the research concerning food texture and its effects on health outcomes. Some attempts regarding this matter have been implemented, and scholars try to examine ways food texture affects the health of different populations such as children, adolescents, and people diagnosed with different disorders (Nederkoorn, Jansen & Havermans 2015). However, cultural peculiarities and socioeconomic status of people are not investigated although these factors have a substantial impact on people’s health status and their dietary practices. It can be necessary to consider these aspects when exploring the influence of food texture on people’s health.
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