Chapter 5 of the book talks about the condition of native women in the times of the colonial conquest of the Americas. The invasion of South and North America by the Europeans involved many males coming into contact with the local egalitarian societies. The Algonquian tribes experienced considerable changes in their established social and economic order (Hughes & Hughes, 1997). Before the invasion, the men and women of the tribe equally divided their work and responsibilities. Yet, after the conquest, the men’s work, which was hunting for large game, became more in demand among the Europeans. Moreover, the trade between the tribe and the invaders made some of the women’s work irrelevant, for instance, the creation of certain items which were now replaced by European ones. The Catholic Jesuits who came to spread Christianity also encouraged the establishment of a patriarchal society and primarily baptized tribal men. Many women opposed conversion to Christianity, but their husbands, brothers, and fathers beat them for their defiance of God.
In New Mexico, where the slave trade was the primary source of wealth for the Spanish, Many Indian women were made slaves and used as property without any rights or freedoms. In Barbados, black female slaves were forced to work in fields and were also subject to different types of exportation, including physical, sexual, and emotional ones. In New Spain, the Spanish conquerors established their cultural norms and rules for women, which implied that females had to be sexually pure and practice discretion. As a result, the Spanish often raped and sexually abused the native women to keep the Spanish ones intact. At the same time, the local population also embraced the Spanish traditions of honor, which once again led to the sexual exploration of native women.
Chapter 6 of the book concerns the topics of the role of African women during the 17th century. In the 1660s, a Lutheran pastor who visited the Fetu people described their social activities. As the pastor stated, the Fetu women dressed according to their status in the community and their wealth. The affluent females covered their breasts with silk, while the poorer ones were topless (Hughes & Hughes, 1997). During weddings, the tribe had festive events, and the bridegrooms had to show their generosity. Men could marry several times, yet the first wife always had the highest status, while the concubines were mostly slave women. The Bakongo tribe in Kongo had a particular social order where women could be given the status of wife or sister. Wives were young women who were able to bear children, yet after the end of their reproductive period, many of them became sisters. The concept of sisterhood implied autonomy and active participation in family matters. Yet, slave women only could have the status of a wife and be denied any autonomy.
The chapter also talks about queen Njinga, a woman who fought the Portuguese in Kongo after the death of her brother. The most important part of Njinga’s story was that to justify her legitimacy as queen, she became a man. As a noblewoman, she had the right to have several husbands, and she ordered all of them to dress in female clothes. Njinga became a successful ruler, led her army in battles, and repelled the attacks of the Portuguese. The chapter also provides information about Eur-African women who were born to European fathers and African mothers. Such women had a marginal status in African societies because they were not recognized by the natives as their family. Thus, Eur-African women, including Betsy Heard, leaned towards their fathers, who provided them with European education. The Eur-African women married other Europeans and thus accumulated resources and status, allowing them to act as intermediaries in the slave trade.
Reference
Hughes, S., & Hughes, B. (1997). Women in world history: V 2: Readings from 1500 to the present. Routledge.