Optical Illusion: Technique to Artist and Designer Dissertation

Abstract

The mind of human is what separates the truth from illusions. However, because some of the factors are at play, our imagination only gives us a grim picture of what we expect, hence the optical illusion. This paper explores the application of optical illusions as a technical tool that assists us, the artists and designers to blend imaginations into reality. The main aim of this paper is to reveal how optical illusion fascinates and deceives as influenced by art and design spearheaded by artists and designers of the modern day.

The methodology entails asecondary research secondary research on materials from specific databases which have information of art and design. The results show that imaginations of an op art have evolved overtime with the emergence of technology. However, the natural piece of art work still has a way of creating imaginations into reality.

Introduction

It is a reality that everyone has experienced some form of optical illusion in their lifetime. Other than being interesting to solve, optical illusions do have the power to surprise since we tend to have some level of trust that what our sense illustrates to us is an actual reality in the physical sense. According to Lancaster (1973) illusions present a good window in how our brains operate, that “the mind sees and hears at the same time; the rest is blind and deaf” (p.28).

Probably this is why it surprises us to note that our eyes cannot see but only absorbs a form of information in the light of perception, which is subsequently transferred to the brain for it to be classified, compared and decided upon (Lancaster, 1973). However, it has emerged that the classification, comparison and decision made by the brain are not always true to the level in which we imagine of them. In other words, our visual perceptions can never be trusted always since the object’s components may give a complete distortion of what we perceive as complete.

In reality, our minds should be the last curtains that separate the truth from illusions, but due to some of the factors that would be highlighted below, they give us a grim picture of what we expect, hence the optical illusion. Meinig (1983) states that most of the optical illusions are products of; “incongruent design elements at opposite ends of parallel lines, influence from the patterns that are on the background on the entire design, the perception adjustment especially on high contrast areas, movements of our eyes that creates afterimages, and lack of ability to interpret the spatial structure of a specific object” from context in which the picture is laid (p.314).

This paper explores the application of optical illusions as a technical tool that helps artists and designers to blend imaginations into reality. The main aim of this paper is to reveal how optical illusion fascinates and deceives as influenced by art and design spearheaded by artists and designers of the modern day.

Methodology

The study was based on secondary research on materials from specific databases which have information of art and design. The search engine, Google was mainly used to access the relevant sites and data bases. One of the databases that proved very useful is the UVU library database, which provided access to other databases in the line of art and design. They include LexisNexis academics, NetLibrary e-books, and Directory of open access journals.

In the search, terms used were: “optical illusion”, “optical art”, “effect of optical illusion”, and “op art”. Although there were hundreds of results generated in the search, it was narrowed down to articles, e-books and journals written in English. This study focused on optical art that makes us have perception of optical illusions (Arnheim, 1972). It must be acknowledged that optical arts are creative ideas that bring out the mind between the belief of understanding and seeing (Lancaster, 1973, p.28). These findings should just be a base for launching other studies.

Literature Review

The origin of Optical art can be traced back to the constructivist practices of the Bauhaus, Germany (Browne, 2001). Spearheaded by Walter Gropius, it emphasized the relationship between artistic analysis of framework and rational perception. In this design many students were trained to give an overall view of the design or the whole composition to come up with a complete composition. In 1933, Bauhaus was forcefully shut down, thereby leading the majority of the instructors to flee to the US, and later coalesce together to form a new movement in Chicago, North Carolina (Browne, 2001).

The way we view things presents us with different perspectives, sometimes inverted in nature. It is hard to observe a renewed attention, were it not because of some two major concrete reasons. First, it gives itself to the illustration of some specific fundamental differences that are normally found between different approaches of pictorial interpretation. One of the traditional approaches, popularly known illusion presumes that the responsibility of painting the actual nature is a duplicate of our visual view of the world, depending on how one perceives the process of interpretation. This is to say that our interpretation will depend on our how one person can perceive it if he or she looks at the object from a fixed station point of view rather than where one uses a camera from the same location and point of view.

If in case the style of picture-construction does not fit standard, and all the perceived styles of the art work product do so more practically and conspicuously, the assumptions will be the artist lacks creativity to accomplish the work or that the artist simply knows and do not see or he has adopted a blind view of the picture or he has a visual defects. Some would say that he has deliberately neglected the rules of artistry. But as Hoenich (1971) notes, none of these reasons fits the bill for both vision and perception.

In another perspective, a collector art works can discover specific fine specimens in the works of psychology professional, art historians, aesthetic professional and the artist as a person. It is said that modern painting separates itself from art of portrayal such that it can help us demonstrate the short coming of the illusions as a process of interpretation. Hoenich (1971) states that we are created in a manner that helps us realize that for us to appropriately interpret the presented pictures, we have to begin by observing the surface of the visual pictures we can see. It is a reality that everyone has experienced some form of optical illusion in their lifetime.

Other than being interesting to solve, optical illusions do have the power to surprise since we tend to have some level of trust that what our sense illustrates to us is an actual reality in the physical sense. According to Hopkins (2000, p.147), illusions present a good window in how our brains operate, that “the mind sees and hears at the same time. The rest is blind and deaf”. Probably this is why it surprises us to note that our eyes cannot see but only absorbs a form of information in the light of perception, which is subsequently transferred to the brain for it to be classified, compared and decided upon (Hopkins, 2000).

However, it has emerged that the classification, comparison and decision made by the brain are not always true to the level in which we imagine of them. In other words, our visual perceptions can never be trusted always since the object’s components may give a complete distortion of what we perceive as complete.

In reality, our minds should be the last curtains that separate the truth from illusions, but due to some of the factors that would be highlighted below, they give us a grim picture of what we expect, hence the optical illusion. Weibel (2005, p.148) states that most of the optical illusions are products of; “incongruent design elements at opposite ends of parallel lines, influence from the patterns that are on the background on the entire design, the perception adjustment especially on high contrast areas, movements of our eyes that creates afterimages, and lack of ability to interpret the spatial structure of a specific object” from context in which the picture is laid.

Although the term op art had been used in several occasions in the past, the first printed work was seen in the Time magazine of October 1964 (Borgzinner, 1964). It is claimed that the work of Victor Vasarely that entailed Zebra painting of 1938 was the epitome op art presentation (………). In this work, black and white dominated the scene, with white stripes lacking contours (……). From this, the appearance of stripes was such that they “meld and burst away from the background of the composition” (…….).

New York’s Museum of Modern Art hosted an exhibition known as “The Responsive Eye” in 1965, where several works were displayed to show various aspects of artistic art. This particular exhibition was based on the perception that art creates on both optical illusion presented by movement and colour interrelations (……..). Although the public liked the exhibition so much that the attendance was enormous, critics were less convinced of the optical art ability to create any meaningful impression. Instead, they saw it as one that “fool the eye” in an attempt to create what is non-existence. However, this did not stop optical art from being used in various aspects of commercial activities like advertisement (Wake Forest University, 2002).

Findings

The use of Optical Illusion on Political Satire

Getting inspiration from the counterculture revolution coupled with street demonstrations of the 1960s, posters were used to demonstrate the contemporary art trends that eventually created flourishing design of innovation and poster output that had far reaching output of political influence in the United States and abroad. ……states that during this time, the artistic posters did not just become an advertising channel but became a commodity on its own, generating a lot of income to the creators, who sold by thousands to “decorate and enliven the walls of a new generation of Americans” (Ratliff, 1996, p.8). To meet the high demands of poster decoration and communication, many innovative designers, at individual and corporate level created a variety of very interesting posters.

The commercial and decorative aspects of the 60s boom were tampered by social and political concerns, which later dominated the placards of the era. The “posters of protest” were the characteristics of various political happenings, while the social contents were useful in the enlightenment of the society on the racial and other forms of discrimination such as poverty and environmental issues (Ratliff, 1996, p.19). Inspired by the contemporary images of optical art, posters heavily exposed strong impression of both social and political satire through a reversal of popular logos as well as slogans (Ratliff, 1996).

According to Mueller (1988), the American flag became a symbol of imperialist aggression, and Andy Warhol’s famous Campbell’s Soup can be made it in one placard with a bullet hole and red soup/blood spilling down its side. It was observed that several workshops were exclusively dedicated to these types of posters. With the use of a silk-screen process, these workshops produced thousands of placards for a variety of social and political action groups.

International poster show held in 1968 at Museum of Modern Art, “Word and Image”, where a number of political placards were featured, where “images of era” were extensively demonstrated in their aesthetic qualities of socio-political images (Mueller, 1988, p.222).). To date, artistic posters are found to be very important in the development of optical images for the advertisement of a variety of products and causes (p.223).

In other words, the visual images have been used to transform the images that are believed to be unrealistic and imaginary, hence helping us condition popular taste of lifestyle and they remain dedicated to their primary function, i.e. persuade the viewer. For example, Henry Kissinger’s bare backside that comprised of unflattering tattoos illustrated an essay that could be associated with controversy in the diplomatic wars Mueller (1988).

Artists such as Ginter Grass, Andy Warhol, Maurice Sendak and Edith Vonnegut created drawings that would better be described as brilliantly baffling Rand (1990). As the New York Times displayed them, they could be interpreted as visual background noise (p.40). However, isolation from the text caused the works to have transfixed anyone’s attention as exquisite conceptual commentary (Rand, 1990). Optical work, or images based on ideas as some people would prefer to call them got its first shot in the Time’s magazine’s opinion page in the year 1970s. According to Rand (1990, p.41), “it became a fertile and a globally influential idiom that bypassed an ordinary narrative for metaphor and eventually changed the very purpose and potential of illustration”.

Or as Ratliff (1996) puts it, these artworks illustrated artist’s creative ability to condense, giving the artists an upper hand in the handling of the art work. For example, in their attempt to illustrate a letter that objects to Disneyland Paris, Victor Koen draws mouse ears on the Mona Lisa (Mueller, 1988). In another rejoinder, Blenchmen creatively captures the grief that engulfed September 11 terror attacks when he draws a heart with the Twin Towers silhouetted inside the building (Mueller, 1988).

Allusion to Visual Process

Artists have shown that pictorial representations of space are a representation of a graphical image processing (Meinig, 1983). That is to say, the picture plane has been treated as an object in its own right and the interplay of marks on the flat surface, creates a room for an abstract art (p.315). In the same breadth, many styles have emerged to be created with vigor in the artistic stages of the 20^th century. For instance, cubism is seen in the denying of single station pint so that numerous viewpoints can be merged within a single pictorial image. In other words, abstract art, especially abstract expression has dwelt on multiple interpretations that can be made of shapes as well as lines.

It is argued that artists can represent aspects of the graphical image, of the processes involved in perceiving pictures themselves. In practice, many phenomena can be expressed in the perception of pictorial images, since many phenomena can be manipulated in this regard. In practice, op art is an artistic movement that has had the greatest success, as some people would describe as notoriety. Generally, artists do not even need to read the detailed manuscripts to make a personal impression. All an artist need is general background information of what is required to make an impression on the optical movement and imagery.

According to Meinig (1983) a sketch of a dancer in the background of stage will offer an interesting impression of movement that can be more entertaining more than even the written description. Acute political image can also get illustrated in the optical art with historical figures as the main target. For example, some of the World War II pictures carried images of moving soldiers in deserts, or fighting soldiers to protect their leader from being toppled by an opponent (Meinig, 1983).

The Optical Illusion and Learning Process

Over the years, many teachers or instructors have tried to accumulate several optical illusion visuals objects, which are displayed during the learning process or before the learning starts to provoke their creativity and gauge interests. In most cases, especially in art classes, pictures of prominent artists are hung around, surrounded by their works so that students could get real motivation in their attempts to learn the process.

Because op art is a perception issue that explains how vision works, its dynamism is drawn from a discord of figure and ground interaction, which causes the used lines to be in a tight and ‘contradictory’ juxtaposition (Weibel, 2005, p.49). In principle, op art is a product of 2 basic ways, i.e. creation of effects by application of patterns and lines, with dominantly used colours being black and white. For instance, many art teachers have applied Bridget Riley’s well known painting of ‘Current’ that was done in 1994 and used as a cover of ‘The Responsive Eye’. In this painting, the application of black and white was very explicit that the artist used black and white wavy lines that he drawn close to each other on a canvas surface, subsequently creating a very ‘volatile figure-ground relationship that one’s eye begins to hurt’ (Weibel, 2005).

As Weibel (2005) challenges his students, he says “I bet I can make you think that drawn lines on paper can appear to move” when explaining the impact of op art on the visual imagery of the students (p.121). In the process of looking at the design, he rotates the design in a more circular path; leaving the students mesmerized at the level of creativity that piece of art was created. From this point, the students are challenged to try a similar work by themselves and explain how they did it and what their interpretation of the process and end products.

Op art and the Influence on Designers

The modern day designers have adopted a new wave of artistic work more beautifully like never experienced before. This phenomenon has been seen in garment designers such as Alexander McQueen and John Galliano. Presently, Jonathan Saunders, who is considered one of the modern day designers, began his long stretched life to the fashion industry (Rand, 1990). Before this, he was a furniture designer, but later stated his desire to go into op art design. His intended work needs a printing process with eight colour object and background. He remarked, “it’s a painstaking process, though very rewarding” (Rand, 1990).

Presently, the vintages of the 1960’s have become more of a select reference than just a straightforward duplication (Weibel, 2005). It is purely a colour issue rather than a silhouette that has emerged a basic focus of design. Some of the well known designers who have employed this trend of adopting 1960s works are like Alberta Ferretti and Marc Jacobs. Designers like Harvey Nichols adopted the designs of Marc Jacobs in a “bold red and turquoise overlaid circles” Weibel, 2005, p.88). It is thus easy to trace the modern design from the 1960s due to the way they increasingly become opulent (p.89).

The Sunday Times’ popular section ‘Style’ carried out a publication of project on the trend of modern op arts adopting the old trends in its front cover page (Hopkins 2000). In this design, a model poses on a “flat backdrop of fluorescent pink, lime green and burnt orange, with a sobering flash of white” (Hopkins, 2000, p.150). Similarly, this aspect has been realized in Burberry’s present ad of the photographic styling through bold ‘action shot’ imagery in toned black and white.

In the cosmetic industry, M.A.C’s viva glam IV campaign has used Elton John, clad in black and white twisted outfit on a background that could be described as neutral, accompanied by Mary J Blige and Shirly Manson (Weibel, 2005). Mary J Blige is presented in a mini dress and dropped in the top corner of the room, subsequently transforming the photograph into a well balanced optical image (Weibel, 2005).

Weibel (2005) states that this kind of influence is not generally confined to the high level market place alone, but even to the low markets. In these areas, shops distribute gift voucher cards. In this aspect, the artistic work can be traced back to the directly popular artist, Marilyn Monroe who was popular for her pop art handiworks of painting. In another scenario in Monica Ali’s book Brick Lane, it is relatively simple in intent where white is the dominant color with supplement of rainbow stripes (Wake Forest University, 2002). This similar influence of the 1960’s is also found in the interior designs and ceramics (p.12). For example, Marimekko is reviving pop art prints, plus their lines that entail cute singular images of a “boldly pop and red supplemented by black” (p.49).

Optical Art also had a big influence on the design process in the art industry. Bramall-Watson states that he “had great fun creating optical illusion content for the video screen” and that some of the creations were somewhat tricky, with the overall idea being to make a lot of depth in the typically flat screen objects (Ratliff, 1996). And that in addition to the big contrast of Optical Art materials, a real depth is created (p.12).

According to Bramall- Watson, in his desire to create a plot for their planned radio shows and some few gigs, he consulted one renowned op artist, Lee Gipson, who advised him on how to use the concept in the creation of depth in his programs and productions with the help of optical art (Ratliff, 1996). He states that after he managed to control both the lighting and video, he made his design with a huge picture to absorb the mentality of the viewers.

He equips, “In some songs, I had in mind specific pieces of videos and thus had to program the lighting system to match it” (Ratliff, 1996, p.17). He further states that he found other songs to be directly light-oriented and therefore video was instead picked to help “complement the lighting” (p.19). Lighting rig made by Bramall-Watson was composed of a mixed Van-Lite VL3000 Spots, laid on top of 2 standing truss towers, Martin Professional MAC 2000 Washes as well as Profiles, together with Atomic Colors (Ratliff, 1996). According to Bramall-Watson, “its backline is minimum and low key, and thus it is important to have light on the floor and still maintain workability from them” (Ratliff, 1996, p.21).

The Technique of movement in Optical Art

How do optical artists manage to make the movement technique in the op art?

Bridget Riley and Victor Vasarely, some of the most renowned optical artists illustrated their uniquely designed paintings. Historically, artists have been known to use flat surfaces to produce strong optical effects upon a spectator when they change their position of view (Rand, 1990). This type of art differs from kinetic art where motion colour and changes with time are incorporated within the object itself. Buildings normally have flat walls, floors and ceilings. Wherever one looks within a room, the rectangle is dominant. We are so used to this type of structures that we take it for granted that this is the natural way to build (Rand, 1990).

However, nature dictates that we avoid box-like structures with their high stress regions (corners) and develops shapes that are more efficient in the utilization of the available material (Hopkins, 2000). Physicists on the other hand, found an easy way to study these special kinds of surfaces, known as minimal surfaces (Browne, 2001). Browne (2001) elaborates that “If an outline of a structure, in two or three dimensions, is made of wire and it is dipped in a soap solution, then on withdrawal from it a soap film will connect the wire outline (p.32). This soap film has the minimum surface area within the outline, and makes efficient use of the material in the membrane to support loads imposed upon it. We have here a construction principle that is useful as well as aesthetically satisfying” (Browne, 2001, p.41).

It is therefore important to note why aeronautical engineers take long in their studies of the design of aircraft structures, and has in the recent past started its application. Michael Burt, an architect at the Israel Institute of Technology at Haifa, wrote: “….. Shells and stretched membranes, especially those based on double-curved (saddle-shaped) surfaces, entail very high levels of efficiency as regards the input/output ratio, due to their capacity to circumvent flexure almost completely, so that the material is utilized for load transmission through purely tensile and compressive membrane stresses” (Browne, 2001).

It thus follows that the significance that is attached to it in the day to day work is used in the study of soap solution film (p.48). He further explains that a film stretched over a closed spatial perimeter, which represents the “ideal configuration as regards the ratio of material input to resulting surface area, with minimum numbers of points of support” (p.49.). This model Burt is a clear show why minimal surfaces are not good for making pictures on them on the scale of buildings. For instance, if a picture was on a surface of varying curvature, then a viewer would be able to see only a part of it from any viewing position (Hopkins, 2000).

To see the various parts, the person would have to move about at different angles and positions. In reality, the particular picture may be comprised of several variations of a figure that is comprised of illusional effects or represent a line of successive parts like the one seen in the films. This process of monitoring the picture while on the move would provide an experience with a difference, i.e. as opposed to looking at one part of it at one particular place. In particular buildings, an artist would make the use of the inside as well as the outside of the surfaces. That is, if the surface material were transparent, the artist would see mirror images on opposite sides of the picture (Hopkins, 2000).

There is a general belief that art is an expression of aspects time among the artists themselves and art lovers in general. However Browne (2001) states that this statement is never exhaustive enough to warrant a complete explanation. He further divulges that art should add value to those aspects of an age that have significance in the evolution of a better life. In case there is lack of the aspect of our time that may involve evil, or any form of negativity or craziness too, like money wastage on cosmetics rather solving problems the society face like poverty alleviation or minimizing the environmental degradation (Browne, 2001).

The work of op artists has gone crazy in many aspects of the society. For instance, an artist in Australia decided to paint a picture where the hill is covered with plastic sheets, which in actual sense the wind had started blowing them away. Still some specific artists in Europe also expressed their crazy mentality when they decided to sit on wet paint, and they subsequently printed their coloured posteriors on a pane paper.

The Op art and the technological advancement

Op art has a way of dealing with rapid movement and change of our technological age. For example, they have been seen to compete with the impact of the cinema and television and even computer technology. However, Mueller (1988) observes that art “should be more than a rolling ball or a blinking light and techniques should be developed that can be used by artists who are not scientists or engineers”, thus for this particular reasons, many modern artists have tried to evolve light projection techniques through the means of sunlight reflection. Meinig (1983) criticizes the idea of black and white only elements of op art, and instead champions for a multicolour products of illusional art.

When one has a sheet of paper before him or her, there is a general feeling that the clean white paper is so beautiful that it should not be touched any how. In this case, the idea of using an unusual outlines as an inspiration to start the work comes from what we normally observe in our day to day observation for the colour pattern to come out clearly in the final product. It is possible to note that humans figure out some issues curiously so that at the end of it, they create what is normally not expected of everything. Even though it may not be against the naturally painted figure, a style where colour is used more frequently does not seem enough to keep with a character of the structure, as far as op art is concerned (Meinig, 1983).

Some artists also belief that the greatest works of visual art do have strong erotic overtones that can be produced readily by the help of a less naturalistic human presence in the figure. One would therefore ask why if such are the beliefs, artists take sun rays in their work, yet the sun rays are generally ‘coloured’ in nature. This demonstrates the fact that there is no doubt about what comprises art content.

Many artists face the basic problems of picture execution; where the picture is not meant to make any stains. It creates a stained glass panel, which do not use any form of lead to hold the glasses together, and instead they are viewed from either side of the panel; but, these techniques are never applicable to all projects (Arnheim, 1972).

The computers

The year 1984 saw the emergence of pessimism as concerns the use of art in conjunction with technology. However, a year later artists were to celebrate the official development of an art computer making its forays into the business of creativity. Even though it emerged as one for fiction and the other for factual information, the two shared an intimate relationship with the technological development in overall sense and the imaging capacities of our creativity by the use of computers in specific.

The First Computer Art show

The application of op art is represented by a historical breakthrough in computer applications, where computers were involved in activity that was initially exclusively out of reach by any machine. Browne (2001)conducted a visual research at Bell Laboratories in New Jersey. The scientists got their motivation mainly from research that is related to visual aspect: “visualization of acoustics and the foundations of binocular vision” (Browne, 2001). Several computer animations were produced, mainly for educational. From this, a few experiments were also conducted to establish the computer-art compatibility. Technological advancements on computer music and poetry were the basis of guidelines in the art of art computing. This saw the first ever computer-generated texts being produced in Stuttgart in the year 1961.

Electronic music studios emerged during this time thus causing many op artists or visual artists to seek information related to computers and art studios. This is because some specific musicians used computers as a tool to help them compose the musical graphics, in an attempt to create a synergy between the various art works (Browne, 2001). A unique case is that of film maker, John Whitney, who attempted to structure his computer animations in line with harmonies of the scale of music. This created some of the best briefings related to computers and even other technologies for art (Browne, 2001).

Even though these shows had given the platform for the first results of artwork and openly questioned how computers and art relate to each other. In other words, it attracted many artists to this expanding field of computer art although it did not succeed in helping a complete computer art as natural art would do.

When one looks at the few artwork of computers arts in its early years, particular patterns come up. It is critical to note that all scientists as well as artists in this particular group are found in the same generation of the two World Wars. Hopkins (2000) states that their heritage is not restricted to specific national borders; but it is a global movement, that is represented by industrialized nations in Europe, America and some specific parts of Asia.

In initial stages, artists came up with some specific utilitarian advantage when they applied computers to speed up their visual thinking (Hopkins, 2000). Charles Csuri refers to this generation as a man-machine generation of computer geniuses, who apply computer as an on-the-spot creative power. Since these particular artists were not interested in the descriptive artistry, they could present themselves simple images that were a product of computer works (Hopkins, 2000). These kinds of products increased the capabilities of computers in generating a more interesting piece of art in the name of op art.

Conclusion

From this study, it is noted that our vision can create an optical illusions for the objects that have been depicted by artists. Apart from it being interesting to sort out, optical illusions can make us believe that what we are seeing is a reality and not an illusion as one would ask. Scientists would explain that the eye is just but a channel through which we absorb and interpret information. In reality, our minds should be the last curtains that separate the truth from illusions, but due to some of the factors, they give us optical illusions that we tend to trust.

Since our minds should give us the barrier that separates elaborates the truth from the illusions, the work of op arts dissolutions the process of our basic interpretation and subsequently give us grim picture of what we did not intend to see but all the same observed.

For instance, a collector of various art works would be in a position to discover specific fine specimens in the works of psychology professional, art historians, aesthetic professional and the artist as a person, but these artworks displayed to a layman will only attract surprise and excitement. It is said that modern painting will separate its contents from art the art of portrayal so that it is in a position to assist us in the demonstration of other weaknesses that illusions come with Other than being interesting to solve, optical illusions do have the power to surprise since we tend to have some level of trust that what our sense illustrates to us is an actual reality in the physical sense.

Reference List

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Browne, P. (2001). The Guide to United States Popular Culture. New York, Popular Culture Press.

Hoenich, p. (1971) An Op Art picture on continuous double-curved minimal surfaces, Pergamon Press, Vol.4, pp. 23-26.

Hopkins D (2000) Media: After modern art: 1945-, Issue 6512, p.147.

Lancaster, J. (1973) Introducing Op Art, London: BT Batsford Ltd, p. 28.

Meinig, D. (1983) the Geography of an Art, Transaction of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol. 8, No. 3, P.314-328.

Mueller, J. (1988). The folkway of Art: An analysis of the social theories of art, The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 44, No.2. pp. 222-223.

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Ratliff, F (1996) The Theory of Color and the Practice of Painting,” in Color Function Painting: Wake Forest University, p.8.

Wake Forest University, (2002), Color Function Painting: The Art of Josef Albers, Julian Stanczak and Richard Anuszkiewicz Wake Forest University.

Weibel, P. (2005) Beyomd art: a third culture, a comparative study in cultures and art. Denver, Springer Publishers.