Introduction
Research Area of Concentration
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) defines a runway incursion as “any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft”. There’s approximately 3 incursions a day at out airports which has the potential to cause catastrophic accidents. Causal factors that lead to runway incursions can be linked to either failing to comply with Air Traffic Controller (ATC) orders, not complying with standard operating procedures, or not be familiar with the airport. The worst disaster in aviation history occurred in 1977 on the island of Tenerife, where 583 people lost their lives when one aircraft taxied on to a runway while another aircraft was taking off.
This paper will attempt to show the reader if there’s any relationship between runway incursions and the time of day, weather, and if the airport is towered or non-towered.
Problem
Purpose Statement
Writing a paper for a Human Factors class on the accident in Tenerife back in 1977 was where I got the inspiration to make this my capstone topic. This accident was caused by a runway incursion and at the time of the incident the weather was bad. The airport had a tower, although visibility from the tower to the runway was not possible at the time because of dense fog. This paper will try to answer three questions using data from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), NASA, the FAA, and other relevant sources.
- Does weather play a factor in runway incursions?
- Does the presence of a tower at an airport reduce runway incursions?
- Can technology mitigate runway incursions?
Literature Review
Annotated Bibliography
Introduction of Annotated Bibliography
Effect of Weather and Towers on Runway Incursions
- Claros, B., Sun, C., & Edara, P. (2017). Enhancing safety risk management with quantitative measures. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, (2603), 1-12. Web.
Summary. The article written by Claros, Sun, and Edara (2017) addresses the issue of runway safety by identifying weather as one of the potential issues that can lead to airport hazards or accidents. Fog, rain, mist, and snow are among the weather conditions listed as unfavorable by the article and outlined as having caused a number of incidents between 2014 through 2017.
Assessment. The authors state that the weather conditions can affect visibility and make the pilot as well as airport aids to lose a clear sight of the runway hence failing to make informed decisions.
Reflection. It is clear from the article that weather conditions are a potential runway hazard if it is not addressed in a proper manner. - White, J. (2014). FAA Runway safety initiatives. Web.
Summary. Another article that outlines the challenge posed by weather in relation to runway incursion, is the one drafted by White (2014). The article provides a comprehensive explanation of how fog, rain, and snow can hamper the process of clearing the runway before landing. In the article, it is clear that runway hazards and incidents have augmented.
Assessment. From the perspective of the article, poor weather condition can delay the process of clearing the runway and affect the visibility making the pilot land when the runway is unclear. The article provides a clear picture of how weather can decrease the safety of runways and affect the landing process.
Reflection. A scrutiny of the article reveals that its focus is on the hazardous nature of poor weather and absence of preparedness among the airport staff prior to takeoff and landing. The article also explains that airports should have well-trained human resources as a way of mitigating the challenges of runway incursions.
Role of Airport Towers in Reducing Runways Accidents
- Federal Aviation Administration. (2015). National runway safety report. Washington DC: FAA.
Summary. The article provides insights on the importance of airport towers in averting runway accidents. According to the article by FAA (2015), towers in airports play a momentous role in reducing the accidents orchestrated by poorly supervised incursion on runways. To explain its point effectively, the article cites a scenario where Dennis Juliana and Zoem Patel averted an accident from occurring after an aircraft landed on a Los Angeles International Airport (FAA, 2015, 38).
Assessment. According to the article, the role played by airport towers is important in prevention and reduction of accidents. From the article’s perspective, a well-organized coordination between tower attendants and the pilot is crucial for successful management of runway incursions.
Reflection. The article is instrumental in highlighting the relevance of airport towers. According to FAA (2015), correct coordination helps in reducing the hazards and accidents in runways. - ICAO. (2017). Aerodrome safety publication: Runway incursion prevention programme. Montreal, Canada: ICAO.
Summary. The article argues that with proper coordination, airport towers can become instrumental in minimizing hazards associated with airport incursions. According to the research undertaken by the article, accidents introduced by incursion on runways take place because of poor coordination between the tower attendants and the other airport staff.
Assessment. The information provided by the article is useful in addressing the long-lived argument on the importance of airport towers in relation to the management of runway incursions.
Reflection. Just like the article presented by FAA (2015) on the ‘National runway safety report’, the effectiveness of airport towers can only materialize when there are proper coordination and communication between the pilots, tower attendants, as well as the members of staff on the runway. - Federal Aviation Administration. (2016). Runway safety: A best practices guide to operations and communications. Washington, DC: FAA.
Summary. Fundamentally, the article unearths various technologies that are useful in curbing runway incursions and associated challenges. According to FAA (2016), use of the airport diagram and frequent checking of the radio helps to notice if there are any incursions on the runway. Moreover, the article outlines the use of lights at the tower and by the aircraft so that the safety team clears the runway.
Assessment. The article provides useful information on the use of communication media such as radios, telephones, and visual aids to minimize instances where runways become hazardous and susceptible to accidents.
Reflection. From the article, it is evident that communication is essential and technologies geared towards addressing the runways incursions should focus on improving the media used in the passage of information. - ICAO. (2017). Manual on the prevention of runway incursions. Montreal: ICAO.
Summary. The manual presented by ICAO in 2017 provides a holistic approach to mitigating runway incursions. According to ICAO (2017), when the airport teams practice high-quality communication and clear runways, instances of incursions and accidents diminish. According to the article, besides technologies used at the airport, the human resources need to coordinate and take personal responsibility so that any unwanted incursion is addressed on time.
Assessment. A scrutiny of the article reveals that proper coordination alongside the use of modern technologies is critical in addressing issues related to runway incursions.
Reflection. The article indicates that communication and use of modern media of communication and proper lighting play a role in the management of runway issues. - Federal Aviation Administration. (2015). Runway safety: Call to action summary report 2015. Washington, DC: FAA.
Summary. The article drafted by FAA (2015) on ‘Runway safety: Call to action’ presents the role played by technology in mitigating runway incursions and elucidates the importance of training and communication. In the article, it is clear that some incursions and runway accidents occur because pilots and other airport staff fail to use the communication media properly.
Assessment. The article is one of the best in the study of how runway incursions can be addressed. Notably, the article provides insights on the significant role played by communication in mitigating runway incursion challenges.
Reflection. By analyzing the article, one realizes that it revolves around communication, training, and passage of information to airport staff and pilots so that coordination becomes swift and runway accidents occasioned by incursions diminish
Research of Educational Outcomes
Introduction to Educational Outcomes
The general purpose of the program’s educational outcomes is to form a comprehensive understanding of runway safety management. The knowledge of the main principles of behavior and organization of runway environment enables airport personnel to be more effective at maintaining the safety of an airport. Another purpose is to encourage the constant search for more effective fail-safe mechanisms and induce a proactive approach towards the provision of safety and security in the context of aviation. The program provides a well-round and immersive education experience which complements the capstone course and forms formidable skills and competencies that will be needed for effective professional development. It provides the vision of safety goals and managerial tasks that are needed to maintain the required level of safety and security in the work of a department responsible for it.
Area of Concentration
Management and prevention of runway incursions require expert knowledge and skills in order to provide a high quality of service in the airport. For the provision of aerodrome security, incursion prevention is paramount. It poses a dire threat to safety and security of passengers, vehicles, and property. Even though the first accident happened several decades ago, airports around the world still face safety protocols breaches, and their employees do not have the necessary equipment, skills or knowledge to manage and prevent such situations effectively. The number of incursion cases even grows with time (see fig. 1).
Therefore, this area of concentration requires additional research and, most importantly, implementation of the gathered knowledge to advance safety protocols.
According to FAA (n.d.), runway incursions are differentiated into three categories by the type of the cause: operational, pilot-related, and vehicle or pedestrian-related. Additionally, incursions are divided into four categories by the degree of outcome severity. Category D includes situations that pose danger to vehicles that perform landing or take-off due to the presence of other vehicles, people or objects on the runway that inflicted no consequences. Category C describes situations where objects or people have sufficient time to be removed from the runway. Category B is characterized by the process of distance reduction between the vehicle that takes off or lands and the object that creates a hazardous situation of the collision. Category A includes situations where the collision was almost imminent but was avoided.
A collision accident that resulted from runway incursion is not included in any of the categories. These categories allow fast classification of a situation and allow for time economy for reaction. Runway service personnel will be able to notify other parties of the situation for a limited amount of time and have better chances of preventing an accident. Currently, runway incursion still threatens safety of the airdrome environment and require actions that would create an incursion-free zone for run ways with a 100% effective protection.
Transportation
It is paramount to have expert knowledge of transportation for prevention of collisions due to runway incursions and prevent the possibility of such incursions (ICAO, 2017). Despite the fact that incursion often results from human error, aircrafts and service vehicles can also become a threat to safety and security of a runway as a result of a malfunction. Therefore, it is a duty of vehicle maintenance personnel to always inquire about the technical integrity of the vehicles and their propulsion properties in order to be able to remove them from the runway in occurrences of a hazardous situation. It is also paramount that personnel has comprehensive knowledge of vehicle or aircraft’s limitations in the occurrence of potential danger such as limited vision, low or high temperatures, high wind speed and so on.
Trends
One of the latest trends related to runway incursions is related to prevention of accidents through the elaboration of guiding documents that clarify instructions for each person who can potentially participate in creation or prevention of hazardous situations. As such, many states and countries, and international organizations have created manuals and handbooks for these purposes. Among them are Runway Safety Team Handbook and Manual on the Prevention of Runway Incursions elaborated by the International Civil Aviation Organization. These documents serve the purpose stated above, and the fact of their creation further speaks about the topicality of the runway incursion issue.
Another trend is the diversification of the media serving the purpose of informing and educating involved parties of a runway incursion. Thus, Federal Aviation Administration (n.d.b) has created a video that explains the main risks an airport staff, pilots, and other personnel may encounter in the process of their daily activity that may involve runway incursions. Such information delivery could potentially be more easily perceived. Additionally, it could be distributed through meetings where such videos and presentations about the safe practices of runway incursion prevention could be discussed. Such trend seems to be highly positive and assistive to the cause of managing the problem of runway incursions.
Application of statistical modeling to assess the patterns and causes of runway incursions became a new trend. Mathew et al. (2017), for instance, evaluate the prevalence of various reasons of hazardous situations in order to identify the areas for organizational interventions. Johnson, Zhao, Faulkner, and Young (2016), apply statistic modeling to identify the relationship between airport geometry and incursion incidence.
Security
Security is a primary concern and the main motivator of activities related to runway incursions. The successfulness of maintaining security and safety of landings and take-offs depends on many factors including airport personnel training levels, vehicle and aircraft correct functioning, technologies used, weather conditions, and many more (ICAO, 2017). Creating an environment where security and safety are the priority often requires professionalism at all levels.
Weather could become a serious threat to security as it often paralyzes the activity of the airport and air transportation. The evidence suggests that fog, mist, snow and other weather events could obstruct vision (Claros, Sun, & Edara, 2017).
Various security measures have been tested and implemented in order to establish sustainable airport environment. There are two main levels of security establishment: prevention and detection. Prevention focuses on measures to reduce the incidence of various objects appearing on runways while detection tactics concentrate on helping operators locate and deal with incidents. The two levels can be viewed as complementary to each other. If prevention tactics fail, then it would depend on detection to maintain safety and security of airport operations. Failure at both levels of runway incursion security often results in an accident.
Human Factors
The human factor is one of the primary reasons for runways incursions. According to Mathew et al., (2017), human error accounts for 70% of the incidents related to this type of hazardous situation in the aerodrome. This gives a reason to believe that it should be the main field for interventions. Human error can occur at different levels or in different teams of workers. The most vulnerable group of people who are subject to mistakes are pilots. Up to 66 % of all runway incursions happen due to pilot errors (Mathew et al., 2017) (see fig. 2). Pilots are always under a great deal of pressure which often leads to stress, lack of attention, and mistakes.
Another vulnerable group is Air traffic controllers and airdrome operators. These people rely on information technology for the sake of accuracy, however, the quality of interpretation and transferring of the information is heavily reliant on the skills and competencies of the personnel. They often have to store and process large volumes of data and guide pilots which requires lots of concentration and finesse. Vehicle drivers are also identified as the population which is subject to human error and create dangerous situations potentially resulting in collisions. The reasons for human error among them could range from the inaccurate position reporting to lack of aerodrome familiarity or qualification.
Each person in those groups could also be subject to external pressure that is not related to their work duties such as personal life problems, which can result in failure to operate normally. However, such issues often lie beyond the control of safety protocols and instructions. The guidance in that regard could only be provided to HR which should monitor and inspect the psychological condition of every employee in order to define if they are eligible to perform their duties.
Communication
Communication is also an essential element in airport operation and has a significant influence on the prevalence of runway incursion incidence. There are various types of miscommunication that could undermine the safety and security of runways and result in incidents. One of the most common is the pilot’s failure to interpret the controller’s instructions. Another popular reason for communication breakdown is pilots accept clearance given to another pilot. Some other issues include deviations from the use of standardized phrasing, transmission complexity, inadequate response, and other problems. According to the manual on the prevention of runway incursions (2017), communication issues could be minimized should the staff follow correct ICAO phraseology and readback procedures, and keep the length of the message to the minimum.
Accurate communication is also based on the speed of data acquisition and its accuracy. These factors in their turn often rely on the level of the technological advancements available to the airport. Additionally, the accuracy of information could be verified by the controller from a tower that allows live eye-monitoring of the situation on the aerodrome. Weather events could also disrupt communication between the parties, and the instruction could be either misunderstood or missed. In such case, pilots are instructed to act based on their view of the situation and visually check the availability of a runway (ICAO, 2017).
Technology
Technology is one of the main contributors to safety and security of runways. As most of the incursion incidents result from human error, the aerodrome environment and equipment should address this issue and create fail-safe circumstances to minimize the factor of human error. However, there are a number of difficulties with devising and implementing technological innovations. One of them is the high cost of production and installation. Airports are often private entities that may not have sufficient funds to update their equipment or restructure the airdrome to comply with the highest possible level of security. Especially, this problem persists in the developing countries or in cities that happen to be unpopular destinations for air routes. This problem is partially solved by the safety and security protocols that require airports to comply with federal or international safety and security minimal requirements.
However, the density of flights can increase faster than the technological capabilities of the airport, which can result in decreased safety and incidents. Constant assessment and evaluation of technical quality and safety of the airport infrastructure are one of the procedures that can locate the bottlenecks in the airport operations. As it was already mentioned above, statistical models can evaluate the state of the airport facility and locate the main problems. As pilot deviations are considered as one of the most common reasons for runway incursions, technological advancements need to target that population to assist them in ensuring safety and security of airport operations.
Trey et al. (2017) report that pilots often fail to navigate the aerodrome when the vision is obstructed by weather or by nighttime. Technologically, this could be aided by the head mounted display devised by NASA that allows enhancing the visibility of the runway through digitalizing the necessary visual information making it more distinguishable. The technology needs to be approved and certified by federal and international agencies, be made a requirement for pilots around the world, and be available for purchase for a reasonable price. All these issues make the introduction of new technologies, however convenient they may be, a complicated process that requires considerable time.
Another technology is developed and patented by Resnick, Greenlaw, and Graue (2017). It is a system that allows detecting and reporting incursion through the use of flight strip system. A device receives and updates the aircraft location and sends it to the similar device used by a controller. This technology allows to rapidly react to incursions and also serve the pilot as an indicator of an unsecure runway incursion.
References
Claros, B., Sun, C., & Edara, P. (2017). Enhancing safety risk management with quantitative measures. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, (2603), 1-12.
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (n.d.). Runway safety – Runway Incursions. Web.
ICAO. (2017). Manual on the prevention of runway incursions. Montreal, Canada: ICAO
Johnson, M. E., Zhao, X., Faulkner, B., & Young, J. P. (2016). Statistical models of runway incursions based on runway intersections and taxiways. Journal of Aviation Technology and Engineering, 5(2), 3.
Mathew, J. K., Major, W. L., Hubbard, S. M., & Bullock, D. M. (2017). Statistical modelling of runway incursion occurrences in the United States. Journal of Air Transport Management, 65, 54-62.
Resnick, H. L., Greenlaw, C. R., & Graue, K. M. (2017). U.S. Patent No. 9,589,472. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Trey, A. J., Bailey, R. E., Williams, S. P., Prinzel, L. J., Shelton, K. J., Jones, D. R., & Houston, V. E. (2017). Review of head-worn displays for the Next Generation Air Transportation System. Optical Engineering, 56(5), 051405.
Appendix A (As Needed)
Title of Appendix
