Introduction
Transporting of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is mostly done by shipping. As the name shows, the gas is often in liquid form. When gas plants are located in remote areas, the shipping method is advantageous over other forms of transport. Therefore, LNG carriers are an important link in enabling the transportation between the liquefaction plant and regasification locations. Typically, LNG carriers are tankers or vessel ships equipped with confinements for transporting LNG in bulk. Due to the rising global demand for LNG products, carriers possessing large carrying capacities are increasingly required. However, the LNG industry has a magnificent safety record due to the nature of the LNG cargo. Risks attached to transporting LNG products have been mitigated due to proper industry practice and laws preventing accidents from occurring or reduce their effects when they occur. Dangers that are linked to handling LNG goods are more and should not be understated or exaggerated. Accordingly, shipping of LNG products requires great care and safety measures because of the flammability and explosiveness which when not considered may result in fire hazards and consequent loss of lives.
The liquefaction of natural gas has certainly made its transportation to be more efficient. As a matter of fact, the transportation reduces great distances to be covered while ferrying the fuel to areas where there is demand. LNG is used domestically for purposes such as cooking and heating, while the fuel is used in public institutions for agricultural purposes, by industry to generate electric power. Not only is LNG a source of energy, but also as a feedstock for the petrochemical industry in the manufacture of plastics, fertilizers, and other products. As evidenced, LNG is a useful product whose carriage depends on how it is handled.
Handling of LNG products depends on the understanding of the hazards that are associated with the commodity. Strikingly, some measures must be adhered to when the product is on-board. While transporting LNG cargo, primary containment methods are important as they provide suitable materials for storage tanks and equipment during ferrying. Therefore, safety measures should be employed when transporting LNG cargo on-board and the methods should be continuously improved to mitigate risks and even deaths.
Literature Review
Coating of Tankers to Avoid Corrosion
Different research studies have established the safety measures that apply to the shipping of LGN cargo. Nevertheless, the studies do not give explicit guidelines on how the products should be handled onboard but rather in general terms. Some studies assert that an important requirement in the transportation of LNG cargo is that the containments for carrying the product are made of non-reactive metals such as lead (Nwaoha, John, and Agbakwuru, 2016). This is always the case to avoid corrosion between the transported liquid and the walls of the container which might lead to a fire outbreak. As such, the carriage tanks of the liquid in a ship are always made by the employment of appropriate engineering designs (LaFleur et al., 2016). Another way of ensuring that leaks or spills can be contained when they occur is through coating the tanks with an additional layer of protection. In this way, the product is captured in case of a spill during transportation (Nwaoha, John, and Agbakwuru, 2016). Essentially, the material type and structural designs of the transportation tanks are among the most important measures of ensuring during the transportation of LNG products.
Keeping of the LNG at Extreme Low Temperatures
Most importantly, the temperature of the ships or tankers of LNG cargo is also considered to avert any danger that may result from the transportation of such flammable products. Some studies have shown that LNG cargo is carried at ambient temperatures in spherical or cylindrical containment and thus limits the use of thermal insulation that is needed by other gas carriers (Krikkis, 2018). Notably, studies do not specify the certain value for the ambient temperatures under which LNG cargo are carried. In fact, other researchers have hypothesized that the temperatures should be kept as low as possible to ensure that the gas is maintained at inert states to prevent any form of heating (He et al., 2019). A typical form of providing safety to the ships carrying LNG cargo has been the insulation of the outer surface of the tanker above the main deck to protect the whole tanker against thermal radiation (Krikkis, 2018). Certainly, insulation plays a crucial role in reducing friction between the LNG and the tankers’ wall hence preventing any rise in temperature that can cause a fire outbreak when the cargo is being transported.
Ways of Improving the Measures
Apart from the safety measures aforementioned, different researchers have proposed some ways of improving the measures. On insulation, some studies suggest that the insulators should be coated with phenolic or polystyrene panels and projectors, bonded with incendiary solvent-based paste (La Fleur et al., 2016). Proper care is also taken to ensure that no hot work is allowed in the hot space to prevent sparks from entering the hold through the access hatches or ventilations (Krikkis, 2018). With this type of safety measure, the polystyrene insulation is covered by a protective aluminum foil that guarantees sparks are provided such that the inflammable insulation is not exposed and ignited. Furthermore, some authors prefer membrane tanks vessels as the ships to carry LNG cargo. In their arguments, the membrane tanks are insulated with double layers of insulation separated by a secondary material (Krikkis, 2018). The membranes are also proposed to be permeable, with the spaces sufficiently purged before any hot work is applied. Undeniably, the researches of safety measures during transport of LNG are categorically based on the carriers and tankers and not the human personnel operating the ships.
In conclusion, container structural design, and the type of material used to make it a major consideration, when analyzing the safety standards of carriers of LNG cargo. Temperature is also another aspect that is important to the carriage of LNG goods. Be that as it may, a raft of proposals is still required to improve the effectiveness of the measures of enhancing the safety of LNG transportation. For instance, the insulators covering the tanker carrying LNG cargoes should be coated with polystyrene panels that are bonded with combustible adhesives. Other researchers propose membrane-type vessels to mitigate risks associated with transporting flammable LNG cargo. Notwithstanding, the investigative studies do not provide an elaborate protective mechanism that should be adopted by the personnel working in LNG cargo-carrying ships. It is for this reason that another research should be conducted to ascertain the methods of maintaining safety for humans during the transportation of LNG cargo. In essence, the human resource in charge of controlling the LNG cargo-carrying vessels should be assured of their protection before any other thing.
Methodology
Research Design
In order to determine the safety measures during transporting LNG on-board, a qualitative research design was adopted. I interviewed 30 different captains from various companies which were involved in the transportation of LNG cargoes. I adopted the method because I wanted to understand the captains’ perception of methods of ensuring safety during shipping activities (Kothari, 2020). I chose the qualitative design because it provided many responses from which I was able to discern which was the most commonly used technique by different companies. Consequently, I obtained data that I relied upon to reach conclusions based on the responses of the interviews.
Variables
Primarily, variables were the measures that the interviewees outlined in their questionnaires. These specific variables did not assume a specific value and the prevalence of each measure was dependent on how the frequency of its mention from among the thirteen respondents. Interestingly, some measures were found to be shared among almost all the companies while others were specific to certain companies. In reality, some variables were dependent on each other and that is why they were referred to as the dependent variables (Kothari, 2020). On the other hand, other variables mentioned were independent of no other and they were referred to as independent variables (Kothari, 2020). In the group of dependent variables, structural design was undoubtedly dependent on the shape of the material used in making the tanker of the ship. The material of the ship was an independent variable and as such, other factors such as the temperature of the LNG were dependent on it. Essentially, it was evident that many methods of safety measures during transportation of LNG were mentioned, yet the most prevalent ones were the temperature and structural designs employed in constructing the gas tankers.
Sample Population
As mentioned the sample population of thirty captains was selected from a population of 505 captains. The population of 505 represented the number of transport companies involved in the business of shipping LNG cargo. This sample was convenient because of different reasons, first to me as a researcher and also to the companies that I was interviewing. The sample size of thirty was convenient because of its relatively lower costs of sampling compared to when the whole population could have been chosen (Kothari, 2020). Also, the smaller sample saved time in comparison to many hours that could be taken when administering interviews to the whole population of 507 companies in Qatar. An additional advantage that I derived from the sample was the creation of a good rapport that I created with the respondents. Precisely, the choice of a smaller sample size of thirty ensured convenience through the collection of intensive and exhaustive data thereby helping against spending more resources on data collection.
Instruments/Materials
The research studies were conducted based on one-on-one interviews and questionnaires. I administered the drafted series of questions to the participants, either through phone calls or personal interviews. In fact, I was able to obtain a lot of information from the responses I got from the questionnaires. Each administered questionnaire consisted of five open-ended questions that were to be taken by the participants. I was able to interview sixteen people from a personal interview and fourteen people were interviewed over the phone. Since I was not present in some cases, in my absence some participants could express themselves brazenly without hiding information (Kothari, 2020). Computers also provided me with assistance as I was able to provide real-time responses from participants whom I was not able to interview directly. I would only read them the terms of the interview and the questionnaires and from their responses, I was able to obtain quick feedback (Kothari, 2020). Essentially, the research was predominantly based on questionnaires and phone interviews, and even though the phone conversations, the questions narrowed to the questionnaires I had formulated.
Procedure
Stratified random sampling enabled me to obtain the sample size of 30 companies represented by the thirty interviewees. After identifying the 505 shipping companies, I divided them into smaller strata which I assigned various Roman numerals from I to V. Each stratum had 101 different LNG cargo transport companies from a specific geographical region within Qatar. It meant that 101 companies to be interviewed were selected and clustered from a specific location. In the first pick, I selected the seventh company from every stratum till I obtained distinct companies that represented each subpopulation (Kothari, 2020). However, my choice of a specific company from every group was based on simple random sampling. Repeatedly, I did the same procedure and after the sixth turn, I obtained 30 companies as my sample. With the sample picked by random stratification, it was diverse and almost every region in Qatar was represented (Kothari, 2020). Definitely, different characteristics across many companies were represented in the sample through stratified sampling.
Method of Analysing the Results
From the data obtained, a difficulty arose when one had to determine the actual measures that are generally taken to avert hazards that arise from the transportation of LNG cargo. Statistical analysis was used to determine the most common techniques of risks mitigation from the various responses gotten from the 30 respondents. Every unique response that was noted from every questionnaire was noted to ensure that all measures listed by the participants were captured to reduce biases. Analysis of the data showed that at least 10 out of the 30 captains provided similar measures applied in their companies to reduce dangers associated with transporting LNG cargo. For instance, 25 captains noted that insulation of the tankers was the best method for preventing dangers when shipping the liquid gas. Material type for transporting the LNG was also a major consideration for many shipping companies as 28 responses were obtained from the total sample of 30. Analytically, the statistical measure of mode was applied to different variables which were regarded as responses provided to infer from the whole population of the shipping companies.
Despite the results gotten from the research, this design might be characterized by some errors that make the qualitative research design to be unreliable. Firstly, as the statistical measure that was depended upon was singly the mode, it is difficult to determine the relationship that may exist between the measures. More precisely, the causal relationship cannot be determined between the variables. In addition, the results obtained are prone to bias as one single captain was interviewed from the company, and they may not be reflective of the organization’s norms and practices. Moreover, the research was limited in its scope due to the responses obtained from the responses. The interviewees’ responses did not give the actions that personnel themselves undertake with regards to keeping themselves safe especially during shipping exercises. In point of fact, the questionnaires are bound to be erroneous in providing facts about measures applied in the companies due to the social desirability as a flaw.
Results and Analysis
To supplement the results obtained from different research works, a qualitative approach was used to determine the relevance of the research and also the authenticity of the results. The method was employed to give detailed information about the safety measures that are used in transporting flammable LNG especially when on-board. This section reflects on the results that were obtained after the questionnaires were administered to the captains either through the phone or directly. It presents the analysis of their verbal responses during the interviews. Long and informal interviews concerning the measures that the captains witnessed being practiced by their respective companies were explained by most of them.
Most captains indicated from their questionnaires that temperature was an aspect of the safety of transporting LNG that it was the most checked parameter before the gas was transported. According to most of the participants, the temperature was important that the cargo had to be carried in ambient temperature to minimize the usage of thermal insulators. Although many captains noted that insulation was of the tanker was a proper move, maintenance of the surrounding temperature was the best measure when LNG cargo was being transported. The results showed that 25 responses were gotten in agreement that temperature control was crucial in safety maintenance during the shipping of LNG cargo.
The questionnaire also aimed at ascertaining the protective gear worn during the transportation of LNG cargo. 11 out of 30 participants claimed that while the protective wear was necessary during the transportation of the liquid gas, their employers did not provide such attires. The captains were forced to buy such clothing on their own without the contribution of the employer. Nineteen others said that their employers were more concerned with the liquid gas reaching its destination than the safety of the captains hence lack of protective wear was not a factor to most companies.
Third, in the questionnaire was the question aimed to address insulation of the tankers when transportation was set to happen. On this particular question, the captains were quite certain that insulators were used to cover the outer surface of the tankers above the main deck to protect the entire tankers against thermal radiation. Their various statements explained that such a rise in temperatures was dangerous during transportation as it was attributable to fire outbreaks and explosions that have led to the death of some captains in the past.
At last certain answers were sought for two related questions which touched on the type of material for making the tankers for carrying LNG cargo as well as the structural designs of the tankers. All the captains, 30 in number, agreed that most companies they were working with were often in possession of circular-shaped tankers for transporting the LNG products. Due to the unanimous agreement of the captains on the circular or cylindrical shapes, it was assumed that the shapes were a manifestation of the compliance guidelines concerning the transportation of liquid natural gas. The tankers were also found to be made of less reactive metals such as lead to minimize corrosion between the LNG and the containment vessels. Critical evaluation of the results showed that LNG transporting companies complied with safety and measures guidelines in most ways.
Conclusion
In summary, safety measures are always employed during the transportation of LNG products as most research studies have shown. However, the safety guidelines require constant improvement to ensure compliance and mitigation of the risks that may be associated with spills, leakages, and fire outbreaks. Firstly, the choice of the material for making LNG cargo should be of non-reactive inert metals that cannot react with the fluid. The second measure that aims at curbing dangers and hazards associated with the transportation of LNG cargo is the choice of appropriate engineering design in making the carriage tank of the LNG cargo. Spherical and cylindrical shapes have been the most accepted shapes in transporting LNG products. Temperature regulation is an additional mechanism for safety maintenance during the shipping of the LNG cargo. As explained before, the temperature of the tanker carrying LNG is maintained at the temperature close to the surroundings’ to guard the whole tanker against thermal radiation. Regardless of the myriad of measures that have ensured the safety of transporting LNG cargo, great improvements need to be made to keep high standards of safety as has been the case.
Effecting proper changes on the measures of maintaining safety while transporting LNG products needs to be pegged on insulation, as a scientific phenomenon. Different materials need to be added to the insulators to increase their efficiencies. Illustratively, materials such as phenolic and polystyrene should be used to coat insulators that are again coated with aluminum foil. This enables monitoring of sparks such that the inflammable insulation is not ignited to cause a fire. The use of membrane tankers should also be embraced for efficient functioning and limiting of hazards that may arise during the transportation of the flammable LNG cargo.
Inarguably, interviews work to confirm or reject a researcher’s hypothesis about a specific study. In this case, an interview conducted on 30 individuals confirms the earlier research question that sought to establish the measures that help in the maintenance of safety during transportation of LNG cargo. By the responses, it is discernible that the findings of the research and the literature review are in agreement. Ideally, the data collected confirms the findings of the earlier studies that enumerated some specific factors as safety measures during transportation of LNG products.
Recommendations
Investigative researches have established the measures that are only inclined towards the tankers and vessels concerning issues of safety when transporting LNG cargo. Despite the stated mechanisms, measures that aim at protecting personnel working on the ships are not considered. Great emphasis should be laid on the captains and other personnel for a harmonious relationship that is geared at eradicating dangers that may arise. Any initiative aimed at providing humans with safety inculcates intrinsic motivation within the individual and boosts work performance by great percentages.
To begin with, future researchers need to conduct an analysis and outline the best course of action that promotes the safety of both humans and the vessel carrying LNG products. In order to conduct proper research, the researchers need to direct their resources on proper evaluation of the importance of human personnel as opposed to the machines alone. This is the very first step that will not only secure proper outcomes in future research but will also eliminate the disparity between humans and shipping vessels that is evident from the earlier researches.
Going forward, more resources should be channeled towards doing thorough conclusive research that removes biases by interviewing more than one individual in a company. Based on the data obtained from the research, more attention should be placed on humans by giving them more training on the issues of proper safety management during transportation of LNG. This specific guideline ensures that everyone is informed about the importance of maintaining safety during competition, as well as, making them useful in improving the measures.
Future researches should also focus on the relationship between temperature and insulation and study how the scientific terms relate to the vessels’ safety during transportation of LNG cargo. The research would form the basis by which scientific innovation would thrive by enhancing technological advancements through the study of the relationship between several scientific phenomena. Other terms that should also be studied to establish any linkage are the engineering design and the type of material that is used in making the containment tankers. All the investigative inquiries are only important when they establish the interlink between scientific terms in opening new learning ways.
Another recommendation is also to use the mixed designs of research approaches. Due to the limitations of each research design, the application of both helps in applying the relevant technique for each specific case. While the qualitative analysis helps the researcher to obtain a lot of information from the questionnaires, the quantitative research design helps in calculating other important measures of population parameters that allow inference from the population. The explanation of any obtainable data should therefore be dependent on the research designs. Usage of two research designs within the same research is also advantageous to the researcher due to the ability of the mixed to research design to eliminate weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative designs as appropriately. Therefore, future research on safety measures should focus explicitly on determining the relationship between variables themselves.
Reference List
He, T., Chong, Z., Zheng, J., Ju, Y. and Linga, P. (2019) ‘LNG cold energy utilization: prospects and challenges’, Energy, 170, pp.557-568. Web.
Kothari, S. (2020) Research methodology: methods and techniques. 4th edn. New Delhi: Oxford Book Co.
Krikkis, R. (2018) ‘A thermodynamic and heat transfer model for LNG ageing during ship transportation. Towards an efficient boil-off gas management’, Cryogenics, 92, pp.76-83. Web.
LaFleur, A., Groth, K., Liao, H., Lopez, C. and Muna, A. (2016) LNG safety assessment evaluation methods, Task 3 letter report (No. DOT/FRA/ORD-16/25), United States. Federal Railroad Administration. Web.
Nwaoha, T., John, A. and Agbakwuru, J. (2016). ‘LNG carriers safety: a research perspective’, International Journal of Science and Technology, 5(7), pp. 324-338. Web.
Appendix
Questionnaire Administered to the Ship Captains
- How is temperature regulation important in safety maintenance during transportation of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)?
- What provisions have you been given by the company to enhance your safety in case of spills or fire outbreaks?
- Explain the importance of insulation to the whole sailing crew and also in mitigating any adverse effects of spills or leakage?
- Explain how the metallic type of the containment of the tanker in preventing or reducing the dangers associated with transporting the (LGN)?
- How the structural design or the design adopted by the engineer does enhance your safety while you are on board?