Abstract
This article seeks to stimulate debates about what the ancient Greek and Republican/Imperial Roman architects may have wished to express using classical orders and the architectural techniques that they used to achieve this end. It notes that the classical period is characterized by a dialectic process that came about as a result of friction between obedience to the ruling class and individualism, self-determination and tradition, struggles for power, and self-control. Architectural techniques like sculpture, tragedy, philosophy, rhetoric and historiography sought to identify, express, reflect and overcome these frictions in ancient Greece and Rome. Just like historical documents, such expressions carry messages of utmost importance. The ancient period was not an era of departure from outdated traditions but was rather a stage of fulfillment of premeditated goals.
The architectural techniques employed to achieve this end during the classical period strove for perfection as well as provide scope for creative thinking and change. The classical orders of architecture in this case did not suggest that certain fixed forms or rules were applied. Instead, such rules and forms acted as the basis through which architects could manipulate design and proportion. A great degree of precision was needed in rendering these architectural forms. Within the use of the classical orders of architecture, there is an enormous range of expressive possibilities.
The rules in classical art did not restrict the scope of individual expression but did exactly the opposite by providing the basis for the widest scope of expression humanely and formally. Such rules ensured continuity without suppressing change. Thus they provided strength and durability to classical orders of architecture which is the reason why architects refer to them from time to time for guidance and inspiration.
Introduction
Classicism refers to aesthetic principles and attitudes manifested in architecture, literature, and art of ancient Rome and Greece and is characterized by emphasizing form, proportion, simplicity, and restraint. Thus, the term classic generally refers to a piece of work that is of the highest class and which is appropriate to be studied in class. The ancient Greek and Roman architects sought to express cultural and aesthetic perspectives guided by the adoration of classical qualities such as maturity, moderation, order, balance, and harmony. In architecture, classicism places a lot of emphasis on geometry, symmetry, regularity, and proportionality of parts as demonstrated by architectural techniques of classical antiquity especially in ancient Greece and Rome (Rapoport, 2009).
Architecture is the design of buildings. In classicism, architectural techniques are used creatively to manipulate designs and spaces to improve their aesthetic value. It portrays the mechanical knowledge possessed by any given culture. Classical architecture places emphasis on simplicity in expressing its system of support. Before Christ, architecture was solely used in symbolic representations of form and decoration. Cultures like Japan, Egypt, Sumerian, and Hinduism expressed their religious beliefs by constructing symbols such as pagoda, pyramid, ziggurat, and stupa respectively. The design of these symbols conformed to sophisticated symbolic systems, dimensions, shape, decoration, and direction towards the sun to enable adherents to engage in meditation. Such designs enclosed little or no space.
The Roman era at the birth of Christ replaced the symbolic architectural designs that dwelt on form and decoration with intelligent, permanent construction that had ample space enclosed. Thus, a new type of architectural art was brought into existence. Whole cities such as Isfahan, Rome, etc were from then onwards transformed into works of architecture. Government buildings, worship places, houses, markets, and amusement places such as stadiums were designed to express individual character. Palaces, market places were well decorated with domes and other architectural designs.
Architecture in the classical period was closely related to art for several reasons. First, emphasis was placed on functionality and aesthetic value is given that most public works were composed of and inspired by religious buildings. Thus, architects also played the role of artists. They were able to construct impressive decorations through the use of fine art techniques. This architecture had two main functions, to appease gods and to consolidate power. The affluence of society was expressed through these functions.
Greek Architecture
On Crete Island in between 1400 to 1700 BC, Minoans built impressive palaces and burial chambers using a mixture of stone, plaster, and mud brick. They decorated buildings by painting them with beautiful symbols that depicted Greek culture. These buildings did not last for long for severe earthquakes hit the area at around 1200 BC destroying most of the buildings.
Mycenaeans from mainland Greece annexed this region a few centuries down the line from where a unified Greek civilization and culture was formed. There are three eras in which Ancient Greece architecture and art are divided. These range from the Archaic Period, Classical Period, and Hellenistic period that occurred from 600-500, 500-323, and 323-27 BC respectively. The Greeks had started replacing wooden structures with stones through a process known as petrification by 600 BC. Metals such as brass and bronze were used for decorating public buildings. Walls and columns were made using marble and limestone. Ornaments and roof tiles were made using terracotta.
Public buildings consisted of sports stadiums, temples, municipal structures, and theatres. During this period, architects received little recognition. They were regarded as common businessmen. However, this changed at the beginning of the fifth century BC.
Architectural Techniques of Ancient Greece
Greek architects used simple lintel and post-building techniques. Through the arch invented by Romans, it was now possible to create spacious buildings. The Greek architects emulated this design to enable them to construct buildings with more interior space without having to incur extra overhead costs. These architects had difficulties trying to construct buildings with expansive interior spaces without using rows of internally placed support columns. Building materials that were scarce such as marble were used for decorating sculptures and constructing elaborate buildings like the Parthenon. Other buildings were constructed using a standard format that involved the use of tuff or large blocks of limestone. Hephaestus was one of such buildings in Athens.
Building Design in Greece
Most buildings in Greece were decorated with magnificent works that depicted mythological events and heroes in Greek culture. Such works ranged from statues of a figurative nature, sculptures, friezes, and pediments. Buildings such as the Parthenon consisted of rectangular building design that was surrounded by an array of columns on all four sides. Roofs were not domed and they were made of timber beams that were decorated with terracotta tiles. The architects fitted most buildings with a pediment on every corner. The architects went further and decorated these pediments and lintels to improve the look of the building.
The lintels were mainly found across the top of each side wall between the tops of the columns and the roof. Later, the Greek architects started building tholos which were circular structures instead of rectangular shapes especially in the construction of temples during the fourth and fifth century BC. The tholos was decorated with black marble to provide magnificent color contrasts and highlight certain architectural elements.
Classical orders: Principles of Greek Architecture
Classical orders as stated earlier were the rules through which building design was based. It guided the architects through the required proportions in the construction of individual parts. This ensured that aesthetically pleasing designs were used in buildings regardless of the type of materials or size of the building (Leach, 1992). These orders were classified into three, Corinthian, Ionic, and Doric. The later style was ascetic and formal in appearance.
The ionic style was more decorative and restrained. The Corinthian style was the latest of the three and it depicted a more elaborate form of the Ionic order. The three styles have a different combination of height and base diameter ratios of their columns (Leach, 1992). Parthenon and the temple of Hephaestus in Athens are two good examples of Doric architecture typical of the classical age. The ionic style became popular during the Hellenistic period.
Roman Architecture
Unlike Greek architecture was oriented towards intelligence and creativity, Romans sought recognition in the fields of construction, military, and engineering. Roman architects relied on Etruscan and Greek techniques. The formerly used hydraulics to clear swamps and to construct arches. It is through the genius of roman art that Greek styles were preserved.
The Roman state sought to entertain, impress and provide ample shelter for a growing population and the state players saw an opportunity in architecture. The state authorities needed to address two pressing issues, mainly security and drainage. The desire for the Roman state to dominate Italians and others fueled the need for highly functional and large-scale public buildings that were imposing and majestic. The Roman architects to this end managed to construct aqueducts such as Anio Novus, Segovia, aqua Claudia and many more. They also built roads and bridges such as the Pont du Gard. Also, they built elaborate amphitheaters and sports facilities such as the Colosseum, public baths like the Caracalla, theatres, temples, central heating systems, etc (Leach, 1992).
The spread of the Roman Empire allowed Roman architects to build new towns from scratch. The town followed a two wide street grid plan. In the first plan, the documents laid down the grid plan from east to west. The second plan was the cardo that ran from the north to south axis (Leach, 1992). The architects showed prowess in building apartments in the city of Ostia where five-story buildings stood.
Advances in new designs and the discovery of new materials gave a boost to Roman architecture. The construction of roof domes and arches enhanced architectural Romantic designs. The capability and efficiency of aqueducts and bridges were enhanced by the use of arches. In constructing such, only a few columns were needed to give adequate support to the structure. As shown by secular constructions like the Pantheon and Christian basilicas, domed roofs enabled the construction of large interiors and impressive exteriors.
The Romans invented concrete in the third century BC. The concrete was a mixture of stones, sand, lime mortar, and water. The invention marked the stage of revolution in Roman architecture and engineering. The mixture was not only strong but also convenient when compared to stones. This enabled the architects to be able to explore the limits of creativity. They no longer relied on the dogmatic Greek design plan that consisted of lines of pillars supporting architraves and undomed roofs. Geometry was relied on less thus enabling construction design to flow freely. Just like Greeks and Egyptians, the Roman architects decorated their buildings with a wide scope of art. These included sculptures that ranged from busts of the emperor to reliefs and other statues. Mosaics and Fresco murals were also utilized (Samson, 1990).
There are two most renowned structures of Ancient Rome namely the Colosseum and Trajan’s column. The former took 8 years to complete and had a seating capacity of around 50,000 people. It is estimated that over half a million people and one million wild animals lost their lives in this structure through the atrocious games that were played there. The other structure named after Emperor Trajan is has a highly detailed spiral bas relief sculpture. The monument tells of victories won by Trajan throughout Dacian wars.
Impact of Religion and Politics on Roman Architecture
Constantinople or former city of Byzantium was designated by the Roman emperor Constantine as the ideal city of Roman Empire after the construction of St Peter’s Basilica in 330 CE. The Roman Empire was later to be divided into two parts namely the eastern and western halves (Samson, 1990). Christianity had become strong by the time these divisions were taking place. It was later granted the status of official religion throughout the Roman Empire. Both events i.e. subdivision of Roman Empire and inauguration of Christianity as the official Religion of Roman Empire impacted on Roman architecture. The designation of Constantinople as the ideal city ensured the preservation of Roman culture which could have otherwise been eroded by barbaric invaders from Italy. Christianity influenced architectural themes for over 1, 200 years from this period.
Discussion
By analyzing the kind of architectural techniques and building materials used in the construction of houses one can get to understand the level of sophistication of social lives of natives. Proper judgment can be arrived at by contrasting architectural techniques and construction materials in different construction periods. Of particular concern to our study is the Republican age that occurred between 80-27 BC and Imperial period that occurred between 27 BC and 54 AD. To understand these periods better, it would be paramount to briefly discuss the previous periods that preceded them.
The Limestone Period
This period took place in 425-200 BC. It derives its name from the material that was widely used in construction. The material was obtained from sediments formed by river Sarno. The technique used in the use of this material was called opus quadratum and it involved placing huge square blocks on top of each other without using mortar. This technique is exemplified in Doric temple. Private developers used this technique to build the façade.
Another technique used was opus africanum that involved placing huge blocks horizontally and vertically after which remaining places were filled with small blocks of limestone the only binding material used was clay. Though the materials used were highly porous, light in weight and brittle all the same the technique was used in paving the streets and constructing thresholds (White, 1996).
The Tuff Period
This period was characterized by decorative Greek architecture. The period was from 200-80 BC. High quality tuff was used in buildings to make exceptional decorations of figurative, Doric and Ionic capitals. The interior of houses was made using a technique called opus incertum that involved the use of mortar that was obtained from Pozzuoli hence the name Pozzolana. This technique was more economic since only a little amount of smaller blocks of stones was used. Stone and mortar of quality was used in construction of inner parts of the wall, whereas the outer parts were built using high quality mortar and regular blocks (White, 1996).
The Republican Period
This period began from 80-27 BC when Pompeii was usurped by Rome. This period was marked by elements that sought to fulfill luxurious needs. Such elements included public baths, oeci and gardens (Yellen, 2005). The architects sought to maximize usage of space which was becoming expensive due to increasing population by building storeys. The architectural technique used during this period was called opus quasi reticulatum. Stones were not randomly placed like in the previous technique but were placed in a regular diagonal manner. Architects could also use small stones that were pyramid shaped by placing them in a linear diagonal frame.
Limestone and tuff were the principal materials used in this technique. Another construction technique which was an improvement of opus reticulum was opus compositum or mixtum. Opus mixtum was a hybrid of opus reticulum when mixed with horizontal rows of tiles. The walls were constructed from tiles that were originally invented during this period.
The Imperial Period
This period run from 27 BC AD 54. It marked the start of a prosperous age for Greece. The architects built an aqueduct to supply the city with constant running water. The supply source was located from the highest point in town. Lead pipes were connected to the source and then distributed throughout the city to supply water. The water system served a large portion of the population. People in the city no longer used traditional methods of water storage such as impluvia.
The architectural technique used during this period was basically an improved version of opus reticulum and it was known as vittatum mixtum. In this technique which was now being used in the construction of most city buildings, horizontal rows of bricks are alternated with horizontal rows of regular blocks of tuff or limestone. Doorposts and corners were constructed using this technique. Buildings constructed during this period were not entirely composed of brick. Instead, latericium was used in the construction of freestanding, corners and borders while opus incertum was used in the construction of walls (Zanker, 1998).
To mark the grandeur of this age, architects built large houses with additional storeys for wealthy people using a refined architectural technique called opus craticium. This technique involves constructing a wooden frame work which is then filled mortar and small stones. The technique used lightweight materials thereby making it suitable for construction of storeys. The walls built using opus incertum technique could not withstand heavy weight material. There are only few examples of private houses constructed using this technique since most of them were constructed using wood which is perishable by nature regardless of the kind of preservative that one might use on it.
Conclusion
The Greeks constructed permanent stone buildings when it came to construction of temples. The sacred buildings contained chambers that were exclusively accessible to priests. The temple’s simplicity made it distinct from other religious buildings from other countries. This can be exemplified in Parthenon that also marked the emergence of a philosophical and rational approach to art.
The Greek architects built two types of temples namely the Doric and the Ionic. The temples exemplified what is referred to as classical orders since their design was proportionate and orderly, a feature that helped improve their aesthetic appeal. The orders had similar basic plan and symbolic meaning that depicted their beliefs in a god who lived like a king. Acropolis was a natural hill where the temple was built. The temple had a peristyle that was used to decorate the house of their god inside. The building had a low lying roof called pediments.
The Ionic temple was superior in size and had double perisytle while Doric temple was constructed using a simple plan. Their shapes were also different in that Doric temples appeared to be thin and tall while Ionic temples had features that made them look robust and short (Leach, 1992). The Greek architects manipulated these orders for aesthetic reasons. They wanted the rendition of the temple to be perfect and orderly. The Corinthian order that came much later was used in the construction of monumental cities to showcase wealth and political might of Hellenic empire and not merely to depict the vocabulary of Periclean temple.
The success of Roman Empire brought about the emergence of a new method of construction that used concrete. This architectural technique is commonly known as opus incertum or pozzolana. It showcased the genius of Roman engineering and culture.
Bibliography
Leach, E., 1992, Reading signs of status: recent books on Roman art in the private Sphere. American Journal of Architecture, 9(6) pp. 551-557.
Rapoport, A., 2009, House form and culture. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Samson, R., (ed.) 1990, The social archaeology of houses, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Whitelaw, T., 1996, Review of houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum. American Journal of architecture, 6(2), pp. 317-320.
Yellen, J., 2005, Archaeological approaches to the present: models for reconstructing the past, London, Allen Lane.
Zanker, P., 1998, Pompeii: public and private life, New Jersey, Prentice hall.