Definition of Architecture
Architecture refers to either the product or the process of planning, designing, and construction. This term is however broad in meaning and in this case our reference pertains to the art of designing and constructing buildings. The reason architecture is very important is perhaps the tendency we have in recognizing historical civilizations by their surviving architectural achievements. This paper seeks to trace the history of architecture and especially the changes it has undergone. In addition, exploration is in respect to regions, traditions, dates, and overarching stylistic trends. It is also important to note that, the use of arched and vaulted forms in architecture has occasioned the development of several new technologies in materials, structure, plan, and building forms as discussed hereby.
Neolithic Architecture
Perhaps it is noteworthy that architecture spans over many years before the modern world, having begun in the Neolithic period. The neolithic architecture was common in Neolithic cultures living in Southwest Asia as early as 10000 BC. From there, it spread eastwards and westwards to places such as Syria and Iraq in 8000 BC, as well as in Southern Europe by 7000 BC and eventually Central Europe in 5500 BC. In all these regions, as people continued migrations, so did their architectural designs. History attests that the Neolithic people were great builders who mostly used mud bricks to construct their dwellings.
The houses and villages they built usually featured plaster and paint with animal and human forms to make them more appealing. History also shows that people like Malta worshipped in megalithic temples while houses in Europe happened to belong to houses built from daub and wattle. Another evidence of past architectural works is the tombs, some of which still survive and which bear testimony as to the elaborate construction used. Other outstanding architectural marvels of the past include long barrows, henges flint mines, and chamber tombs and curses monument as seen today in the British Isles (Wertheimer 2004, p. 1).
Mesopotamia and Egypt Architecture
Apart from Europe, architectural progress was developing in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, as early as 4000 BC. These two places mark the beginning of man’s civilization and also an important era in the history of architecture. In Mesopotamia for instance, permanent structures began appearing whereby they regarded craft building as a divine gift. The inhabitants pioneered courtyard houses, urban planning, and ziggurats. They also erected large monoliths made from mud bricks, in areas such as Gobekli Tepe. In addition, they were the originators of Adobe-brick, which proved more superior to vitreous brick mainly due to its superior thermal properties and low manufacturing cost. The red brick was also used as a building material in waterways, monuments, and decorations.
Sumerians
The Sumerians for instance had masons who excelled in working without mortar and sometimes used bitumen to join bricks. The shape of the bricks was also changing; from rounded shapes to plano-convex and had proved to be economical in manufacture and plastering. Because most of the bricks were sun-baked, a way was sought to reinforce the building using colored stone and clay nails, to reduce deterioration of buildings over time. Other materials that came in to use in the Mesopotamian era were cedar from Lebanon, lapis lazuli from India, and diorite from Arabia (Palmer 2009, p. 291).
Babylonian
In terms of form, Babylonian temples for instance were massive crude brick structures with buttresses support to enable rainwater to drain away. A drain in Ur was way ahead of its time, having been made from Lead. Continuous application of brick contributed to the development of pilasters, enamel tiles, frescos, and columns. At the same time, the masons also developed their skills and knowledge in building with newer materials. To make their walls more appealing, materials such as gold, tiles, zinc usually came in handy.
Assyria
In the neighboring Assyria region, the Assyrian architects had initially copied the Babylonian choice of building material; brick. As time went through, they switched to stone, as this was in abundance in their surroundings. Many of their palaces featured colored slabs of stone and bas-relief, in sharp contrast to Babylonian painted structures. Bas-relief on the other had developed slowly into more complex realistic forms, sometimes in conjunction with gems and other metals. These and many other interesting works have been unearthed by archeologists and attest to the development of architectural material in Mesopotamia.
In respect to structure, plan, and building forms, the Sumerians introduced the first built forms resembling a city. A city like Uruk, mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as having walls, streets, temples, and gardens. The important aspect to note is the idea of planning which resulted in finer structures built on the irregular landscape.
The houses used by people were also designed as squares, with the main house being the central and the rest as attachments; a common design in modern times. The residential houses also opened to a courtyard which proved essential in ventilation. The houses had windows opening and their doors were such that there was no direct view of the inside; thus differentiating a private and public space.
Another aspect of earlier architecture was evident in the palaces, temples, and ziggurats. Mesopotamia palaces were large complexes built with materials already mentioned, as well as having unique forms and layouts such as featuring gates. The temples too acted as a meeting place for men and gods, and hence the great emphasis in their building. They mainly featured rectangular corners aligned with compass directions and an observatory roof for timekeeping.
Concerning landscaping, the temple was built on allow terrace that had rammed earth. Temple doors were short axis for men and long axis for gods’ entry while the halls would be partitioned into rectangular tripartite. Ziggurats were built in pyramidal shapes with terraces with straight or spiral ramps for access since they raised several stories high; this gave rise to modern staircases for high-rise buildings.
In almost all Mesopotamian buildings, the Eastern architects took great care in designing outlines of their structures. They placed great emphasis on the curves and angles of the walls, the domes, and slopes on the roofs, and the layout of the foundations. To ensure their buildings stood the test of time, fortifications were made, for instance by arching the gateways so that they could support the weight above. The landscape was also complimented by beautiful gardens and fountains and sometimes a vacant space for waste disposal.
Egypt
The architecture was developing in Egypt too, as is evidenced by the Great Pyramids. From mere rectangular flat-roofed buildings made of mud brick, Zoser, a pharaoh in 2620 BC endeavored to create a unique burial chamber. He commissioned the building that characterized placing rectangular stone mastabas on top of each other and in progressing smaller size; thus the first pyramid. Stone was the main choice of material and was hewn or cut into massive blocks that were placed atop each other to form the pyramids (Hamlin 2010, p. 47).
As time progressed, the next civilization was the Knossos and Mycenae around 2000 – 1100 BC and who lived around the Aegean Sea. They too improved Egyptian and Mesopotamia architecture and came up with structures featuring columns that were carved from natural rock. This would continue until the Greek civilization around 700-500 BC.
Greek Architecture
Greek architecture is perhaps the most remarkable form of building that has continued to influence modern-day architecture. All the elements from past civilizations were merged by Greek architectures to give rise to delicate flatted columns, supporting horizontal lintels and sculptures to conceal roof edges. They perfected their skills to achieve a balance never seen before. Emerging forms of architecture from the Greeks were the pillar made of wood and decorated capitals, which would eventually be influential in later architecture. Substitution of wood to stone columns began around 620 BC and brought with them a defining elegance unheard of in the past. Some of the famous optical tricks like the gradual swelling of a column, either top or bottom (entasis), coupled with a raised floor was common.
Greek architectures introduced the Doric and Ionic styles, as evidenced by the Pantheon and the Greek theater. They pioneered the auditorium where the audience could watch the drama on a raised stage whilst they sat on a sloping hillside. This aspect was a predecessor of modern theaters featuring a stage, isles, and sloping seating arrangement.
Around 200 BC, Greek builders in Turkey began the use of cement as a core structural material in place of plaster and bitumen common in the past. Cement was made out of lime which is mixed with clay, sand, and water to form a strong binding material fit for building. At around this period, the Romans also made use of volcanic lava or pozzolanic, which eventually proved remarkable in Roman roads.
Roman Architecture
Romans soon conquered the Greeks and hence began their influence in architecture. Under the “Orders of Architecture” written by Vitruvius in the 1st Century BC, Romans dealt with all aspects of building such as general principles, materials, painting, machinery, and any other aspect. His concepts gave rise to Classical Architecture; a combination of Greek and Roman ideals in the building. In the course of this time, the Romans would gain architectural unity through the realization of the theory that had been acquired from many years of experience and practice. The ideology they embraced was to have buildings take place of representing their presence within space. Space became the center stage where human manipulation could freely be exercised.
Many developments were put in Roman engineering and building methods, especially through the emphasis of newly discovered marble quarries and the introduction of the “arch.” From these inventions, the Romans endeavored to work with “space” by constructing domes and colonnades in rhythm with their imperial ruler-ship and civic order. The social climate was also changing fast, hence the need for new buildings and of increasing complexity; roads, bridges, residential blocks, hospitals, academic institutions, coliseum, and others came into perspective here.
The fruits of the Roman Architectural Revolution gave rise to the arch, the vault, and the dome; these were rarely used before especially in Europe. The use of Roman concrete coupled with innovativeness would result in the erection of many unprecedented structures across the Roman Empire. Examples of such buildings were the Roman temples, Roman bridges, Roman harbors, Roman aqueducts, Roman amphitheaters, triumphal arches, Mausoleums, Roman Churches, and Roman circus palaces. Many of these buildings featured the Roman domes with their characteristic vaulted ceilings that enabled huge covered public spaces, examples of which are the Pantheon and the Diocletian Baths in Rome (Robertson 1945, p. 231).
As it would be observed, the biggest achievement of the Roman building style was realized through the development and application of the arch, the dome, and the vault. The Greeks for instance made little use of the dome preferring horizontal lintels that spanned open spaces. The Roman ingenuity propelled this concept to appear in major architectural designs. In comparison, a Greek lintel could cover about seven-yard of adjoining columns while the Roman brick arch could span 50 yards.
In essence, it is difficult to differentiate between the arch, the vault, and the dome since they share the same concept: the vault is a deep arch while the dome is a collection of arches with a shared center. It was by concrete that these achievements would be realized. For example when a dome or an arch held by concrete, remains as a single unit, with its weight exerting pressure downwards instead of outwards. A perfect example was evident in the Pont du Gard and the Pantheon, both of which were built in the 1st and 2nd Centuries respectively.
The Romans continued to employ the arch, the vault, and the dome in other structures such as the Roman bridges. These posed great constructional problems although Roman engineering conquered the challenges. The impressive bridges or aqueducts were marvelous works, especially those closing over ravines. An example is the Trajan that spans the Tagus in Spain with its two massive central arches. The bridge is 110 feet wide and lies suspended 210 feet above the river. In this construction, the material used was un-cemented granite and the massive 8-ton blocks were winched into place by pulleys.
They were initially supported by huge timber structures until the arch was complete in a similar manner modern construction is carried out. Another astounding phenomenon was in the building of bridges and aqueducts in places without any solid rock or island. The Pantheon roof is a work of genius, due to its big span. Interesting enough, the dome is open at the top, thus adding flamboyance as well as a visual thrill. In a move that traditional architecture could not make, the Roman architectures even made it possible to place a dome on a square base highlighting their sophistication.
After the Roman Empire was moved to Byzantium or Constantinople, its architectural prowess continued to be influential, mostly to Medieval and Renaissance eras. In these two eras, buildings increased in geometric complexity as other construction materials evolved. Bricks and plaster were combined with stone, while classical orders, mosaics, and complex domes became the norm. Another aspect that emerged was the use of massive piers and windows which could filter light through sheets of alabaster, to illuminate the rooms below (Sear 1989, p. 6).
Asian Architecture
The architecture was not silent in Asia and more developments continued to emerge. The Indians had great reverence for their deities, hence the complex Hindu temples created by the stupa. The most remarkable of such architectural constructions are the Angkor Wat and the Pagan, which were magnificent and massive structures.
The arrival of Buddhism in China and Japan gave rise to the Pagoda style which originally was realized by carving temples from solid rocks. In Islamic cultures under the Persian architecture, the sphere was the most notable element of their buildings. Interesting enough, the Dome of the Rock is perhaps the only domed roof in Muslim architecture and a great current architectural marvel. In Africa, mud and palm leave roofed houses were common. Perhaps it is important to look at Korean architecture which was somehow different from Chinese and Japanese in style. The Korean structures were either vertical or horizontal founded on a stone sub-foundation and roofed with tiles. The walls are usually made of earth and feature movable wooden doors (Ooi 2004, p. 179).
From Classical to Modern Architecture
Moving away from Classical architecture, came the Early Christian and Mediaeval architecture, 370 – 500 AD, which was prevalent in Europe and largely relied on Byzantine style. It was followed by the Romanesque 500- 1200 AD which relied heavily on the arch, the dome, and the vault, then the Gothic Architecture 1100-1450 AD, which saw many great cathedrals built in Europe. Gothic structures featured large windows and stained glass as well as massive arches. The Renaissance Architecture marked an age of awakening whereby classical ideas were hatched in Italy, England and France. Up to the period around 1600 AD, other architectural eras that emerged include the Baroque dominant in France and Imperial Russia and the Rococo era marked by white buildings and sweeping curves.
Pre-Columbian/ American Architecture
The beginning of 1600 AD marked the American Colonial Architecture that mainly was composed of different ideologies and ideas from the colonial master’s homeland. In America also, some cultures originally lived there and they too had their unique architecture such as the Mayans and the Aztec. In general, American architecture evolved like in Europe beginning with Romanesque to Gothic and Renaissance.
This is evident in the integration of say the dome in Capitol, Washington State (the age of villa and country seat). Further, America mostly upheld the Georgian architecture that largely featured symmetrical styles in the early 1720-1800 AD. There were also bouts where Europe and America went back to Classical ideas, as in the Neoclassical and Greek revival architectural eras leading up to 1850 AD. Victorian architecture was also common and it combined most of the earlier styles, amid the industrial revolution (Elliott 2002, p. 1).
From around 1890, the Arts and Craft Movement began to appear and the environment, manmade and natural, became the central source of inspiration in the building. Both the Art Nouveau and Beaux-Arts architecture attest to the fact that shapes, colors, and texture of common objects and nature were transferred into buildings. Neo-Gothic and Art Deco architectures marked the end of the 19th Century with ideas of modern skyscrapers beginning to emerge.
19th Century Architecture
The 19th century was an eclectic century in which architecture kept evolving, almost in a very short period. Again, a century proudly and in self-confidence took what it liked from traditional architectures, mixed and matched and sometimes distorted to come up with the most magnificent buildings of all time. Despite this advantage, it is ironic that the ingredients of architecture remained and were seldom added; consider stone, cement, wood, etc. but it is not to say that there was nothing new since cast iron found itself in the mix that would later pave way for steel and glass hence modern skyscrapers. Prefabrication of cast iron also saw many buildings that featured the arches and vaults become possible (Ching 2012, p. 138).
20th Century Architecture
The 20th Century architecture began in the 1900s to internationalize architecture. This era called for new materials that could form the modern structure better unlike mud bricks, stone, and cement. Since cast iron and concrete alone could not define form as required in modern greenhouses, halls, markets, exhibition pavilions, and complex passages, there was a great need to come up with new ideas, which could incorporate arches and vaults. The work of developing new technologies in materials, structure, plan, and building forms were picked up by engineers. The greenhouses for instance required prefabricated semi-circular vaults, which then could be assembled or erected on a light foundation.
This gave rise to new ways could design modular systems, scales, and dimensions so that they could be useful in architecture. Iron construction was able to produce domed and arched spaces, but the rest had to be done by stone. These ideas began what would later become a norm as in using skeleton frames that would later be combined with glass and horizontal beams. Due to population growth, architecture was forced to change dramatically and come up with styles to fulfill the various needs of people (Sinopoli 1998, p. 25).
In all the history highlighted in this paper, it is evident that the Roman gave the modern world a unique form of architecture. The use of vaults, arches, and domes continues to feature in many modern buildings as well as serve a purpose that was impossible to realize in history. It is important to note the advantages of using arches and vaults for instance in modern-day bridges and large halls, which need to be very strong. Had the Romans not invented such important architectural designs, the processes, and the material to construct them, it would be difficult for the modern generation to be proud of modern architectural achievements.
Influence of the Arch, the Dome, and the Vault in 20th Century Architecture
In addition, we have observed in history how architectural ingredients evolved to give us modern means of construction such as Portland cement, glass, and steel. The development of these materials goes back to the time of mud bricks and bitumen in the Neolithic era. It is important to acknowledge the history of architecture since it is the one that has given us modern skyscrapers which we are all proud of. In conclusion, the widespread use of vaults, arches, and domes, either in the past or presently, attests to the suitability of such designs to buildings and architecture in general. Ideally, we can conclusively say that the use of arched and vaulted forms in architecture has greatly impacted the emergence of new materials, structures, plans, and building forms of the modern world.
Reference List
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