Historical background to Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence is a concept that its use dates back to the 19th century. The term first appeared in the scholastic philosophy of Aristotle to describe cognitive and mental differences in human race (Gögebakan, 2003). Since then, many scholars have conducted studies using different theoretical positions to understand the abstract concept of intelligence in its practical sense.
While studying individual differences in the late 1800s, Francis Galton argued that intelligence required a more direct underlying measure to be able to explain the perceived individual differences, hence his suggestion of reaction time to understand the difference in sensori-motor measurements resulting to factor analysis of intelligence (“Key Players in the History of Intelligence,” 2005).
Guided by Galton’s approach, Spearman (1904) conceptualized a single general dimension of intelligence “g”, which included all components of intellectual pursuits (as cited in Intelligence-Historical background, 2011). From his observations of various mental tests and school performance measures, Spearman concluded that all mental test measures are common and the results vary depending on people’s general ability.
Spearman later adjusted his single dimension conceptualization of intelligences into a two-factor dimension, i.e., general ability “g” and special ability in 1927. His observation was that people who are gifted in general ability are also gifted in special ability (“Key Players in the History of Intelligence,” 2005). Just like his predecessor, Spearman’s conceptualization of intelligence was widely accepted and provided the main test for intelligence in the early 20th century.
Binet and Simon (1905) conducted the first empirical study on intelligence using Spearman’s single general dimension of intelligence (as cited in Denig, 2004). Arguing that intelligence is measurable, they came up with a number of questions and used them as a test of intelligence (Denig, 2004).
However, their study was criticized since it only focused on psychological abilities ability hence could not explain the perceived scholarly differences. Binet and Simon later revised their work in 1916 to incorporate the concept of mental age and concluded that intelligence varies depending on mental age (Gögebakan, 2003). Unlike their first study, their revised study was widely accepted in the U.S. and Europe.
In a similar study, Lewis Terman adopted Binet and Simon’s work to develop his famous Stanford-Binet test for use in American schools in 1916 (Intelligence-Historical background, 2011). He, however, introduced the concept of IQ in his Stanford-Binet test to act as a measure of cognitive capability with reference to a person’s age and hence allow for quantification of individual’s intellectual functioning.
Whereas the Stanford-Binet test worked well on adolescents, it failed to provide the same results on adults, a drawback Terman attributed to the lack of linear correlation between cognitive ability and chronological age past teenage years. Further, Stanford-Binet test required a high level of skills in its use and proved too expensive when used with large groups of people hence the need for simpler tests of intelligence.
Faced with the limitations of applying the Stanford-Binet test in large groups, Yerkes conducted a study on 40 psychologists, Terman included, to come up with his Army Alpha and Army Beta tests used to classify inductees during the First World War (“Key Players in the History of Intelligence,” 2005). Beta was a test for verbal intelligence, which Yerkes used to test illiterate non-English speaking solders and was conducted through demonstrative instructions as opposed to oral instructions.
Raymond Cattell (1963) acknowledged the existence of a general intelligence “g”, but insisted on two components of “g”, i.e., fluid intelligence denoting the primary reasoning ability and crystallized intelligence denoting factual knowledge (as cited in “Key Players in the History of Intelligence,” 2005).
Unlike the single factor theorists, Thorndike and Woodworth (1901) took a multidimensional approach to intelligence (as cited in The Intelligence-Historical Background, 2011). The two argued that individuals have different dimensions of intelligence, which has three attributes namely magnitude, speed and power (The Intelligence-Historical Background, 2011). Although disputed due to lack of empirical backing, their work provided a solid theoretical framework for future multidimensional studies on intelligence.
Guided by Thorndike and Woodworth’s work, Wechsler developed his Adult Intelligence Scale in the 1930s through 1950s. Unlike the Stanford-Binet test, which focused on IQ as a measure of intelligence, Wechsler incorporated non-verbal activities in his intelligence scale in a bid to come up with an intelligence test for adults.
His adult scale published in 1955 was based on clinical observations and mental tests of two dimensions of intelligence, i.e. verbal and performance intelligences (The Intelligence-Historical Background, 2011). Wechsler later developed an intelligence test for pre-school children.
Thurstone (1938) (as cited in “Key Players in the History of Intelligence,” 2005) carried out the first study approach to multiple intelligences. Arguing that Spearman’s “g” is a second order factor of intelligence, Thurstone studied the primary mental abilities and came up with seven dimensions of intelligence namely: Verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, space, associative memory, perceptual speed, and reasoning (“Key Players in the History of Intelligence,” 2005).
His study, though unable to explain the perceived intellectual differences, added an important conception towards understanding intelligence; that intelligence is better understood when primary mental abilities are taken into consideration as opposed to the single “g” factor (“Key Players in the History of Intelligence,” 2005).
Guilford (1967) expanded on Thurstone’s earlier work to come up with six multiple dimensions of intelligence that accounted for the observed differences in individual intellectual abilities (as cited in The Intelligence-Historical Background, 2011). Guilford’s six intelligences included verbal, inductive reasoning, spatial orientation, number skills, word fluency and perceptual speed (The Intelligence-Historical Background, 2011).
Using the same approach, Howard Gardner developed his Multiple Intelligence theory in 1983 recognizing seven intelligences namely linguistic, logic, bodily kinesthetic, spatial, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal (Gögebakan, 2003).
Unlike the single factor theorists, Howard Gardner disputed the use of IQ as a measure of intelligence and argued that intelligence is much more than IQ (Gilman, 2001). Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences recognized the important fact that each one of us is gifted differently in different dimensions of life. His theory was able to explain the perceived intellectual differences as well as the differences in individuals’ talents making it a widely accepted theory among educators.
Through Multiple Intelligences theory, educators have been able to understand the differences in intellectual and talent abilities among students and hence the development of appropriate instructional materials geared towards identification and development of talents.
Given this important fact, Gardner’s MI theory has since provided a theoretical framework for understanding individual differences in intellectual capacity and identifying talents in the classroom. It has also provided a theoretical framework for policy development aimed at gifted education.
Despite it being widely accepted, Gardner’s MI theory has also faced criticism. Most critics argue that Gardner’s multiple intelligences are cognitively inter-linked hence does not provide adequate empirical proof to dispute single factor approach to intelligence (Morgan, 1996 as cited in Galman, 2001).
Critics also argue that Gardner adopted a broad definition of intelligence in his theory thus rendering intelligence meaningless (Sternberg, 1983, 1991; Eysenck, 1994; Scarr, 1985 as cited in Waterhouse, 2006a). Further, his critics argue that Gardner’s multiple intelligences can be reduced to abilities, personality traits, and talents (Sternberg, 1983, 1991; Eysenck, 1994; Scarr, 1985 as cited in Waterhouse, 2006a).
With this historical overview, the next section of this paper is an elaboration of Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory.
Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences
Developed by Gardner in 1983, Multiple Intelligences theory recognizes the important fact that each one of us is unique and has a blend of intelligences that define our talents and abilities. Gardner (1983) in his book Frames of Mind presented seven independent intelligences namely: spatial, linguistic and logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence, but later added an eighth form of intelligence, naturalistic intelligence.
This section therefore seeks to explore Multiple Intelligences theory in a more elaborate manner that also addresses the use of this theory in identification and nurturing of talents in the classroom as well as practical examples of the theory in use around the world.
An introduction to Multiple Intelligences theory by Howard Gardner
Proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983, Multiple Intelligences theory seeks to explain how and why children develop from childhood to adulthood from a psychological point of view (Gardner, 1983). In his theory, Gardner tries to explain why people brought up in the same environment turns out to exhibit unique talents and abilities.
In his definition of intelligence, Gardner (1999) argues that intelligence is more than mere IQ since without productive results, IQ cannot equate to intelligence (as cited in Gilman, 2001). Intelligence Quotient, traditionally used by psychometricians, is a quantifiable measure of intelligence acquired from birth and cannot be improved.
Gardner, on the other hand, perceived intelligence to be something that we are either born with or acquire from our interactive environment and can be developed from its raw form into a profession (Gardner, 1983). In this regard, Gardner (1999) defined intelligence as “a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture” (p. 34) (as cited in Gilman, 2001).
Contrary to single entity psychometricians, Gardner argues that intelligence is a multidimensional concept that cannot be narrowed down just to a single item reflected in IQ score. While developing his Multiple Intelligence theory, Gardner criticized traditional views of intelligence arguing that they are too limited in viewing intelligence as a single factor yet people portray different kinds of intelligences.
To this end, Gardner (1983; 1999) proposed comprehensive criteria for defining intelligence drawn from psychometrics, logical analysis, experimental psychology, biological sciences, and developmental psychology (as cited in Gilman, 2001). In this regard, Gardner (1999) established eight criteria for defining intelligence (as cited in Jaber, 2010). The criteria for defining intelligence are:
the potential for brain isolation by brain damage; its place in evolutionary history; the presence of core operations; susceptibility to encoding; a distinct developmental progression; the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people; support from experimental psychology; and support from psychometric findings respectively. (Jaber, 2010, p. 22)
The first criterion defines the possibility of separation of one form of intelligence from others within an individual (Gilman, 2001). This is justified by the fact that patients who suffer brain damage still exhibit other talents, despite the loss of cognitive ability. From logic analysis point of view, Gardner argued that intelligence must portray identifiable capacities that distinguish it from other forms of intelligence (Galman, 2001).
That is, for any talent to qualify as intelligence, it must exhibit unique characteristics that distinguish it from other forms of intelligence. By the criterion of susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system, Gardner argues that intelligence must be presented in symbol systems such as drawings, mathematical systems, spoken language among others, not naturally occurring systems (Galman, 2001).
In simple terms, this criterion means that intelligence must be something that can be expressed using any possible means and not things that are naturally occurring like IQ. As for evolution history and developmental progress criterion, Gardner used developmental psychology approach to argue that intelligence must be able to exist in a raw form that can develop through a progressive process. For instance, musical intelligence exists in its raw form expressed through children’s interest in musical sounds.
With practice and good training, such children can develop into great musicians. The existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people criterion was derived from developmental psychology (Galman, 2001). From developmental psychology point of view, Gardner argued that these groups of people represent natural accidents hence allows for a comparison study of the nature of different intelligences (Galman, 2001).
Finally, the remaining criteria are based on psychometrics and traditional psychology. From this perspective, Gardner argues that there must be experimental support differentiating one form of intelligence from other related intelligences for it to be included in his list of intelligences (Galman, 2001).
Using these criteria, Galman came up with a list of seven intelligences to constitute his Multiple Intelligence theory in 1983, but later added the eighth form of intelligence in 1999 to capture full range of human talents and abilities. The Multiple Intelligence theory as used in the present world has eight forms of intelligences namely: spatial, linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic as outlined below (Gögebakan, 2003).
Each one of these intelligences define how people handle themselves including their career interests. The traditional single factor IQ tests may classify an individual low in intelligence, but the same individual becomes a genius when classified using Gardner’s MI theory as illustrated below.
Spatial intelligence deals with spatial visualization and judgment. Children with this type of intelligence may be poor in math, but according to Gardner, they are just as genius as their math-gifted counterparts. Children with this type of intelligence are always good in solving puzzles, graphical interpretation, and drawing and painting. Spatial intelligence is associated with such professions such as survey, architecture, and engineering.
Similarly, linguistic intelligence refers to talent in terms of knowledge of words either spoken or written. Individuals with linguistic intelligence are good at debating issues, reading and writing, mastering written and spoken information, and explain things best. Linguistic intelligence is associated with such professions as Journalism, law, and teaching.
Logical-mathematical intelligence denotes talent in logic reasoning, math, and abstractions. Individuals with logic-mathematical intelligence are good at problem solving, empirical studies, numerical computation, and forming abstract ideas. Logic-mathematical intelligence is associated with professions such as accountancy, engineering, and scientific research.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence denotes the ability to use body movements in a manner that allows an individual to solve certain problems (Galman, 2001). A perfect example of is the use of sign language to pass across information. Individuals with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence enjoy sports and dancing, and use bodily movements such as touch to solve problems. Such individuals develop to be dancers, actors, builders, and sculptors.
Musical intelligence denotes individual’s sensitivity to musical sounds. Individuals with musical intelligence have great understanding of musical compositions including structure, rhythm, and notes. Such individuals are always successful in music-related careers.
Interpersonal intelligence refers to knowledge with regard to interactions with other people whereas intrapersonal intelligence refers to knowledge of one’s self. Individuals with interpersonal skills are very social and value friendships.
On the contrary, individuals with intrapersonal intelligence keep to themselves and exhibit excellent self-awareness. Professionally, individuals with interpersonal intelligence are psychologists, politicians, sales people, and counselors. Conversely, individuals with intrapersonal intelligence grow up to be theorists, writers, philosophers, and scientists.
Finally, naturalistic intelligence defines one’s ability to relate information to one’s natural environment. Individuals with naturalistic intelligence enjoy outdoor activities that give them a chance to connect with nature. Such individuals make good biologists, conservationists, and farmers.
Unlike the past theories on intelligence, Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory managed to explain the perceived differences in people’s abilities and talents in a more realistic manner that has made it a significant tool for talent identification and development in schools around the world.
Unfortunately, most schools focus on the development of logical intelligence and linguistic intelligence at the expense of other important forms of intelligences. More often than not, math and languages are compulsory courses in most elementary schools. Students who do not possess logical or linguistic intelligence are left out and are seen to have a lower IQ than their counterparts, something that Gardner disagree with stating that we are all genius in different aspects of life.
Nonetheless, there is hope as most countries are currently engaged in education reforms in a bid to develop Multiple Intelligences curricula. Educationists concur with Gardner’s theory that not all students are the same.
Therefore, teachers have been encouraged to use different instructional methodologies, exercises and activities to accommodate all students (Jaber, 2010). This also means different teaching approaches for students with learning difficulties. There are even schools using MI theory as a framework for their instruction and assessment.
A study, led by Harvard Gardner on 41 schools using the theory revealed that both students and teachers from these schools had developed a culture of caring, respect, hard work, cooperative sense and focus for talent development (Galman, 2001).
Despite it being widely accepted among educationists, Gardner’s MI theory has also faced sharp criticism. Critics argue that Gardner’s multiple intelligences are interlinked hence opposing Gardner zero correlations (Galman, 2001).
Gardner’s definition of intelligence is also perceived to be too broad rendering intelligence meaningless. Critics also argue that Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory is more rhetoric than scientific, an opinion that has not been changed even by Gardner’s subsequent work after the introduction of MI theory in 1983.
With this comprehensive introduction, the remaining part of this paper is application of MI theory to enhance talent development and finally examples of practical applications around the world.
Multiple Intelligences and talent maximization in the classroom
The need for identification of talents in the class often result into controversies as educators are faced with the dilemma on whether to capitalize on extra-curricular talents or those that fit within the academic curricular (Heller, 2004). More often than not, educators are an aware of what talents are to be identified, for what purpose, and how to identify them.
In this regard, Heller (2004) asserted that the identification of talents requires a multidimensional approach that recognizes all sources of individual gifts including talent factors, personality characteristics, environmental conditions, and performance areas. Thus, Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence theory offers a solution to this problem by providing a multi-faceted approach to talent identification and development in the classroom.
In this regard, Gardner argued that the best way to improve intelligences is through environmental richness (Gögebakan, 2003). Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory offers a framework for talent identification and development in each dimension of intelligence as discussed below. It is also worth noting that, there is a direct relationship between individual’s intelligence and future career success as illustrated below hence the need to maximize talent in the classroom to enable students recognize and follow their talents.
Linguistic Intelligence: Linguistic Intelligence denotes language sensitivity reflected in one’s ability to use language as a means of information gathering and self-expression (Gögebakan, 2003). According to Gardner (1993), people with high linguistic intelligence make good lawyers, speakers, poets, and writers. In the classroom, students with linguistic intelligence have brilliant auditory abilities and have a high tendency towards playing word games, writing and reading (Gögebakan, 2003).
They also have a sharp memory of dates and places and would prefer word processing as opposed to other programs in a computer (Gögebakan, 2003). In this regard, Prieto, et al. (2005) argues that linguistic intelligence distinguishes human beings from other animals as it gives people the ability to remember, analyze and solve problems, plan ahead, and be creative. According to Multiple Intelligences theory, educators can develop linguistic talents through encouraging students to engage in such word oriented activities as:
- reading and writing about historical events
- writing fictional stories about topics that interest them
- writing a narrative or speech for major school events
- and interviewing students in pairs to let them express their ideas about specific exhibition, concert, events in a verbal manner.
Engaging students in such activities, not only help them to utilize their linguistic capabilities, but also sharpen their linguistic skills.
Logic-mathematical Intelligence: Logic intelligence denotes the ability to use logic reasoning in problem solving. People with high logic-mathematical intelligence are able to scientifically investigate issues, and perform mathematical operations (Gögebakan, 2003).
According to Campbell, et al. (1966), people who are gifted in logic-mathematical intelligence are able to use abstract symbols to represent concrete objects and concepts, perceive objects in the environment together with their functions, pose and test hypotheses, and demonstrate high skills in logical problem solving (as cited in Prieto, et al., 2005).
People with high logic-mathematical intelligence make good scientists in life. In the classroom, students with high logical-mathematical intelligence are those that are able to explore and make connections between relationships and patterns. Such students enjoy solving mathematical problems, logical reasoning and experiments and would prefer statistical programs like spread sheets on computers (Teele, 2000).
Gardner (1993) (as cited in Gögebakan, 2003) proposed the following approach as a means to developing logic-mathematical intelligence:
- constructing graphics to observe, compare, and construct patterns and relationships between objects
- collecting and analyzing data on various events or attitude surveys
- establishing timelines for various occurrences
- and creating a financial plan for individual expenditure or other major events
Spatial Intelligence: Gardner (1999) described spatial intelligence as the ability to recognize and use patterns of both wider and more confined areas (as cited in Gögebakan, 2003). People with high spatial intelligence are those that exhibit an ability to conceptualize a mental picture of the spatial world and operate through it (Prieto, et al., 2005).
According to Teele (2000), students with high spatial intelligence are those that enjoy map reading, thinking in images, working with carts and diagrams, and performing art activities. Such students have a high sense of space, color, form, and shape (Gögebakan, 2003). People with high spatial intelligence make good artists in life. The best talent development approach for students with spatial intelligence includes encouraging students to perform such activities as:
- visualizing a two-dimensional illustration to create a three-dimensional sculpture of the same
- designing paints or placement maps for school concerts or exhibitions
- and choreographing performance art such as a dance, a marching band or a class skit
Musical Intelligence: Musical intelligence involves talents in composition, performance and appreciation of musical patterns. According to Gardner (1999), musical intelligence is related to linguistic intelligence and denotes the ability to compose musical tunes, pitches and rhythms (as cited in as cited in Gögebakan, 2003). Students with musical talent are those that are able to listen and respond to all types of sounds and organize them into momentous patterns (Prieto, et al., 2005).
They are also capable of interpreting messages in musical compositions and have an interest in either singing or playing musical instruments. They also prefer listening to music while studying and can easily store and apply information through musical processes (Teele, 2000). People with high musical intelligence make good musicians in life. Teachers can develop musical talent in the classroom through strategies such as:
- allowing students to research and compose music for inclusion in class play
- encouraging students to learn about music from other countries
- encouraging students to use counting cadence with drills and analyze similar repeated patterns
- and assisting students to compose music using computer to match visual expressions of painting, mood, dance, or piece of literature.
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence: Bodily-kinesthetic denotes one’s ability to solve problems using bodily movements. People with a high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are able to use their body to express themselves or manipulate objects to solve problems (Prieto et al., 2005). In this regard, Prieto et al. (2005) states that bodily-kinesthetic talent is expressed through characteristics such as:
ability to explore one’s environment through touch; ability to develop a sense of coordination and timing; high preference for participatory learning; high preference for touch to manipulate what is to be learned; good memory for demonstrated information rather than verbal information; ability to use body and mind to perfect physical performance; and ability to express bodily skills through acting, dancing, athletics, curving, sewing, and keyboarding. (par. 4)
Bodily-kinesthetic talent can be developed through engaging students in activities like:
- interpreting sounds or visual images using body movements
- creating mini-productions of plays or scenes from famous films
Intrapersonal Intelligence: Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability of an individual to understand and appreciate oneself including one’s feelings (Gögebakan, 2003). According to Howard Gardner, intrapersonal intelligence involves the ability to develop working models for oneself including the ability to regulate one’s life using such models (as cited in Gögebakan, 2003).
People who have intrapersonal intelligence are: aware of their emotions, motivated to pursue goals, independent, develop accurate self-models, are curious about the meaning relevance and purpose of life, and motivates others (Prieto et al., 2005). According to Teele (2000), students with high intrapersonal talent are often independent, appreciate themselves including their weaknesses, prefer quiet environments, and are self-reflective. The best strategies for developing intrapersonal talent include:
- use of reflective journals as part of lesson plan
- independent research projects
- encouraging students to write critiques of daily events such as concerts, field trips or production
- and writing a self-evaluation of personal performance
Interpersonal Intelligence: Unlike intrapersonal intelligence, interpersonal intelligence denotes one’s ability to understand others including their desires, motives and motivations (Gögebakan, 2003). It reflects one’s ability to fit in the social world. According to Gardner (1999), interpersonal intelligence is very important for political and religious leaders, educators, counselors, and salespeople (as cited in Gögebakan, 2003).
Students with interpersonal talent are often cooperative; assume various roles in collaborative efforts; use a variety of ways to relate to others; form and maintains relationships; and are capable of influencing other people’s opinions (Prieto et al., 2005). Teachers can use the following strategies to maximize interpersonal talents in the classroom.
- Use of cooperative learning techniques such as group discussions
- Creating a room for peer coaching in the classroom
- Use of team quiz and research projects
Naturalistic Intelligence: Introduced by Gardner in 1996 as an eighth form of intelligence, naturalistic intelligence denotes an ability to relate with nature (Teele, 2000). Students with naturalistic intelligence exhibit characteristics such as strong sensory skills, ability to use sensory skills to categorize objects in the natural world, likeness for outdoor activities, and concern for nature (Prieto et al., 2005). Teachers can maximize naturalistic intelligence in the classroom through such strategies as:
- designing outdoor learning environments
- encouraging students to learn and incorporate nature in their art work
- organizing nature walks to allow students connect with nature
Examples of Multiple Intelligences approach to education around the world
Since its introduction in 1983, Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory has revolutionized education around the world. Most countries have revised their education systems to develop curricula that recognize and develop other important dimensions of intelligence other than the traditional intellectual intelligences. This section, therefore, presents examples of MI theory in practice in selected countries from different regions of the world.
The U.S. remains among the pioneer countries to incorporate Gardner’s MI theory in education system. Since the development of MI theory in 1983, the federal government has amended its education curriculum several times in a bid to move away from the traditional teaching practices, which were more focused on linguistic and logic-mathematical intelligences at the expense of other important intelligences, to a more inclusive curriculum.
The recent federal and state mandates such as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) are all geared towards creating a learning environment that is friendly for all students regardless of their intelligences.
The New City School in St. Louis, Missouri provides a perfect example of MI theory in practice in schools in the United States. The school started implementing MI theory way back in 1989. New City, being an independent school, serves students aged three years through 6th grade and has a philosophy that focuses on student diversity, affective learning and experimental education (Hoerr, 1992).
To achieve this, the school implemented a 24% minority enrolment affirmative action to allow less fortunate children a chance in their school. In the classroom, lessons are designed in a manner that reflects students multiple intelligences with grade-level themes such as Keepers of the Earth, Our Solar System, and Travel Back to the Future (Hoerr, 1992).
Similarly, the UK has also amended its education system to come up with a curriculum that addresses the need to provide citizens with education suitable for their ability, age, and special educational needs. These amendments have made it possible for schools to come up with programs that reflect their student’s multiple intelligences in addition to the compulsory courses.
For instance, in England, the DfES in 2005 announced major changes in its 14-19 years curriculum that saw the introduction of vocational diplomas as an alternative to young students who would prefer a specialization in their gifted areas rather than continuing with a wide range of GCSEs (schoolswork.cu.uk, 2007).
In Turkey, the government has been struggling to implement Multiple Intelligences theory in its education system since the late 1990s. In 1998, the Turkish government combined “primary school” and “lower secondary school” to form “primary education system hence increasing the number of years for compulsory primary education from five to eight (Gögebakan, 2003).
The main purpose of education as stated in Turkish Basic Law of National Education (as cited in Kaya, 2006) is focused in developing the interests and abilities of all Turkish citizens hence the need for implementation of MI theory in the classroom.
Initially, Turkish primary education system focused only on the development of linguistic and logic-mathematical intelligences at the expense of other forms of intelligences. The courses taught at first and third grade were geared towards enhancing student’s linguistic and logic intelligences. However, at fifth and eighth grade new courses have been introduced to help students develop interpersonal intelligence as illustrated below.
Table 1: Turkish Primary Education Weekly Schedule Gögebakan (2003)
Nevertheless, there have been renowned efforts to implement MI theory in Turkish educational system since 2003 (Kaya, 2006). Turkish Board of Education has carried out various education reforms in primary school education system between 2003 and 2005 to meet the requirements of multiple intelligences in the classroom. These reforms included training of teachers as well as introduction of new textbooks that focus on multiple intelligences (Kaya, 2006).
In Japan, the Japan/Kirigama Chain people Grade Second Teacher Mary Hart for non-Japanese-speaking children in Tokyo presents a perfect example of how multiple intelligences is being used in a multicultural education set up (Ryan and Katie, 2004). In this project, the curriculum is designed in such a way that captures eight forms of intelligence as described by Howard Gardner. The curriculum also has two indicators, i.e., the classroom and the art room.
Dubbed the Eight Eyes of Japan, the lesson plan for this program is designed in a manner that taps into Gardner’s multiple intelligences and tackles each form of intelligence every day (Ryan and Katie, 2004). For instance, Monday lessons focus on students’ musical intelligence as the instructor introduces a topic on Japanese music and musical instruments. On Tuesday, the focus shifts to linguistic intelligence as the instructor teaches students on Japanese language.
On Wednesday, the focus shifts to bodily-kinesthetic, which is presented through background information on traditional Japanese dance. Naturalistic intelligence forms the activity on Thursdays with basic lectures on Japan’s geography.
Finally, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences form the activities on Friday as students engage in activities such as writing letters to their peers. Spatial intelligence is captured each day as the lessons are presented through drawings, map reading, worksheets and posters. Evaluation is done in three forms namely, posters, worksheets and letters to classmates as illustrated below.
Table 2: Sample of evaluation poster. Ryan and Katie (2004)
Table 3: Sample Worksheet for Japanese music activity. Ryan and Katie (2004)
Finally in Lebanon, studies have been conducted to test the applicability of the Spectrum Project in Lebanese pre-schools (Jaber, 2010). Originating in the United States, the Spectrum Project was developed on the belief that each child has unique talents and abilities that can be improved given educational opportunities hence the need for a curriculum and assessment method that that captures this (Jaber, 2010).
Maluf (1996) (as cited in Jaber, 2010) carried out the first study on the applicability of Multiple Intelligences theory in a Lebanese Kindergarten classroom. In another study, Jaber (2010) carried out a research study on the Spectrum Project in Lebanese preschools. Jaber (2010) was more interested in finding ways through Lebanese preschoolers can be helped to develop their talents.
These studies have provided policy framework for Lebanese government to develop an all-inclusive project that when implemented in Lebanese pre-schools will ensure talent identification and development. The recommended program for adoption in Lebanese preschools will involve adoption of the Spectrum Project activities, incorporation of MI in the preschool curriculum, Multiple Intelligences classroom, and involvement of parents in the program (Jaber, 2010).
Conclusion
From the many literature reviewed, a conclusion can be drawn that Multiple Intelligences theory is a comprehensive theory whose history is backed with a series of research with varying theoretical positions. Multiple Intelligences theory as developed by Howard Gardner recognized the important fact that each one of us has unique talents and abilities, no wonder the theory found favor among educators in the world. The theory has been applied with success in many countries around the world, a few of which are discussed above.
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