Introduction
Typhoid fever is also referred to as typhoid and is a frequent global infection. The illness is passed on by the gulping down of food or water polluted with fecal matter of an infected individual, which hold the bacterium Salmonella enterica enterica, serova Typhi. The microorganisms then go through the enteric wall and are phagocytosed by scavenger cells. The life form is a Gram-negative tiny aerobic rod-shaped spore-producing bacterium; often occurring in chainlike formations (Parry & Beeching, 2009, p. 7). It is capable of movement as a result of its being covered all over with uniformly distributed flagella. The bacterium develops best at 37 °C which is about 98.6 °F. This is the normal human body temperature and is the reason as to why the microorganism thrives really well in humans.
The infection got a number of names which include; stomachic fever, abdominal typhus, juvenile remittent fever, dawdling fever, edgy fever, and pythogenic fever, among others. The reference typhoid came from Louis in 1829 and it was an offshoot from typhus. Typhoid fever was as well referred to as suette milliaire in France in the 19th century. With the advance of up to date hygiene practices, the brunt of this infection has fallen significantly.
History of the disease
In the region of 430 – 424 BC, an overwhelming epidemic, which a number of people suppose to have been typhoid fever, took the lives of a third of the populace of Athens. This included the leader of that time, Pericles. The equilibrium of supremacy swung from Athens to Sparta, marking the end of the Golden Era of Pericles that had seen Athenian supremacy in the primeval human age (MDPH, 1997). Early historiographer Thucydides as well became infected with the illness; fortunately he lived to tell the tale in his writing on the subject of the epidemic. His pieces of writing are the principal starting place on this occurrence.
The grounds of the outbreak have long been in doubt, with contemporary scholars and therapeutic scientists reflecting on epidemic typhus as the most probable source. On the other hand, a research carried out in 2006 noticed DNA chains comparable to those of the bacterium to blame for typhoid fever. A number of experts have queried the results, alluding to serious procedural faults in the alveolar soft tissue drawn DNA research. The infection is most regularly passed on by way of poor cleanliness practices and civic hygiene settings. For the duration under the spotlight, the entire populace of Attica was encircled in the Long Walls and resided in marquees.
A number of historiographers deem that in the English protectorate of Jamestown, Virginia, typhoid fever took away the lives of over and above 6000 inhabitants in the period from 1607 to 1624. In the period of the American Civil War, 81,360 Union combatants lost their lives to typhoid or dysentery (Evans & Brachman, 1991, p. 32). Towards the end of the 19th century, the typhoid fever death tempo in Chicago faired at 65 in 100,000 persons in a year. The most terrible year was 1891, when the typhoid mortality tempo was 174 in 100,000 persons. The most infamous bearer of typhoid fever was Mary Mallon.
However, she was not by a blame sight the most vicious and was also referred to as Typhoid Mary. In 1907, she turned out to be the initial American bearer to be recognized and marked out. Mary was a chef in New York. She is very much linked with 53 infections and 3 fatalities. Civic health officials recommended Mary to quit her job as a chef or have her gall bladder done away with. She gave up her job but got back later using a fake identity. On being discovered she was taken in custody and closed off following another typhoid epidemic. She passed on as a result of a pneumonia infection after 26 years in isolation.
In 1880 Karl Joseph Eberth illustrated an aerobic rod-shaped spore-producing bacterium; often occurring in chainlike formations; found primarily in soil that he supposed was the root of typhus. Later in 1884 diagnostician Georg Theodor August Gaffky backed up Karl’s conclusions, and the life form was given references such as Ebert’s bacillus, Eberthella typhi and Eberth Gaffky bacillus. In the present day the bacterium that results in typhoid fever is referred to as Salmonella enterica enterica, serova Typhi.
In 1897, Almroth Edward Wright came up with an effectual vaccine. Later on in 1909, Frederick F. Russell, came up with an American typhoid vaccine. Russell was a United States Army medical doctor and two years later his inoculation course turned out to be the initial in which whole armed forces was inoculated (Evans & Brachman, 1991, p. 33). It did away with typhoid as a major basis of unwholesomeness and death in the United States armed forces.
A large amount of urbanized nations saw falling tempos of typhoid fever all the way through the opening half of the 20th century as a result of inoculations and developments in civic cleanliness and sanitation. Antibiotic drugs were brought in clinical applications in 1942, to the highest degree trimming down deaths. In the present day, occurrence of typhoid fever in urbanized nations is about 5 occurrences in a million persons in a year. An outburst in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2004 – 2005 confirmed over and above 42,000 occurrences and 214 fatalities.
Disease description
Typhoid fever is set apart by a bit by bit progressive rise in temperature of the body to as high as 40 °C or 104 °F, copious perspiration and stomach flu. Less regularly, an inflammation of even, rose-tinted acne may come out.
Typically, the path of untreated typhoid fever is separated into four case-by-case phases, each taking about one week. During the first week, there is a little by little increasing temperature with proportional abnormally slow heartbeat, uneasiness, headache and cough. A blood-spattered nose is observed in one quarter of instances and abdominal ache is as well probable (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003, p.541).
There is an abnormal lowering of the white blood cell count, a drop off in the amount of flowing white blood cells, with a decrease in the number of eosinophils in the blood and proportional abnormal increase in the number of lymphocytes in the circulating blood. A positive diazo effect and blood refinements are affirmed for Salmonella typhi or paratyphi. The standard test for detecting typhoid fever and other salmonella infections, the Widal test, is negative in the initial week.
In the second week of the illness, the infected lies face down with elevated body temperature in level about 40 °C or 104 °F and abnormally slow heartbeat, characteristically with a dicrotic pounding wave. Frenzy is recurrent, repeatedly tranquil, but at times restless. This frenzy gives to typhoid the pet name of nervous fever. Rose-tinted acne comes out on the lower chest and abdomen in about one third of sufferers. There are sounds like whistling or snoring that are heard with a stethoscope during expiration as air passes through obstructed channels in lung bases. The abdomen is bloated and hurting in the lower quadrant where borborygmy can be heard.
Diarrhea can come about in this phase, with stools ranging from six to eight in a single day. These stools are green in color with a typical stench, akin to pea broth. On the other hand, stultification is also common. The spleen and liver become bigger and tender, and there is increase of liver aminopherases (a class of transferases that catalyze transamination that transfer an amino group from an amino acid to another compound). The Widal result is robustly affirmative with anti-O and anti-H antibodies. Blood refinements are at times still positive at this phase. The most important indication of this fever is that the increase in body temperature normally takes place in the afternoon up to the initial and subsequent week.
During the third week of typhoid fever, some problems can come about. Enteric blood loss as a result of bleeding in jam-packed Peyer’s patches can occur, and can be awfully grave but is normally not critical. Enteric damage in the lateral small intestine can also occur and is an extremely severe problem and is repeatedly deadly. It may take place exclusive of frightening warning signs until blood poisoning or diffuse peritoneal inflammation comes about.
Inflammation of the brain usually caused by the bacterium can also occur at this phase and symptoms manifested include headache and neck pain and drowsiness and nausea and fever (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005). Neuropsychiatric signs can also come about at this stage with the patient pecking at bedding or make-believe things. Pathological process symptoms also occur towards the end of this phase with inflammation of the gall bladder, inflammation of the endocardium and heart valves, and inflammation of bones.
The fever is yet extremely elevated and moves to and fro especially little over 24 hours. Lack of fluids develops and the sufferer is hallucinated. By the closing stages of the third week there begins to occur an abatement of the fever as indicated by a reduction in body temperature fever. This goes on into the fourth and last week.
Transmission of typhoid fever
Flying insects that feed on fecal matter may sporadically convey the disease causing organisms by way of poor sanitation practices and civic hygiene settings. Civic teaching drives egging on people to sanitize their hands after pooping and before holding food are a vital element in having power over transmission of the infection. As reported by figures from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC, the disinfection of water by the addition of small amounts of chlorine has led to remarkable reductions in the spread of typhoid fever in the United States (Giannella, 1996, p. 8).
A sufferer may turn out to be a symptomless bearer of typhoid fever, showing no signs, but able to pass on the infection to other persons. Research from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention shows that more or less 5 percent of persons who catch the infection go on to bears the illness after they get well. The most renowned symptomless carrier was Mary Mallon, earlier mentioned, who is frequently referred to as Typhoid Mary. She was a young chef who was accountable for passing on the infection to not less than 53 persons with the illness, three of them passed on from the same infection. Mary was the initial actually wholly fit individual known to be to blame for a pandemic.
A lot of carriers of typhoid were put into a quarantine zone never to be discharged so as to put a stop to any more typhoid infections. These persons in most times got worse psychologically, the circumstances they thrived in being responsible for this.
Heterozygous advantage
It has been theorized that pancreatic fibrosis may have gone up to its current echelons of 1 in 1600 persons in the United Kingdom as a result of the heterozygous benefit (having dissimilar alleles at corresponding chromosomal loci) that it holds in opposition to typhoid fever. The CFTR protein is there in both the lungs and the enteric epithelial tissue, and the mutation pancreatic fibrosis kind of the CFTR protein bars way in of the typhoid bacterium into the body by way of the enteric epithelial tissue (MDPH, 2005).
On the other hand, the heterozygous benefit theory was put forward in one assessment in which the writer himself states that even though cellular proof is currently unobtainable for this theory, the CF chromosomal variation may be one of the many variations that that have increased in European populaces as they augmented opposition to transmittable infections. Because no cellular tentative proof has been brought forth in shore up of this hypothesis, this proposition is not acknowledged by the mainstream of the technical society.
Diagnosis of typhoid
Analysis of the infection is carried out by any blood, bone marrow or fecal matter and with the Widal’s test (test for detecting typhoid fever and other salmonella infections). In outbreaks and less well-to-do nations, after leaving out malaria, dysentery or pneumonia, a remedial assessment time with chloromycetin is frequently embarked on at the same time as anticipating the outcome of Widal’s test and samples of the blood and feces. Widal’s test takes considerable time and in most times when the conclusion is attained it is too late to commence an antibiotic course of therapy.
Epidemiology
There are an approximated 16 – 33 million occurrences of yearly ending up in 216,000 demises in prevalent regions. The World Health Organization recognizes typhoid as a severe civic healthiness difficulty (Ryan & Ray, 2004, p.13). Its prevalence is uppermost in juvenile and young adults aged from 5 – 19 years of age.
Prevention of the infection
Cleanliness and hygiene are the vital steps that can be undertaken to put off typhoid. The infection does not affect animals and as a result spread is only from man to man. The infection can only be passed in settings where human stool or pee is able to contaminate food or drinking water. Vigilant food preparation and sanitization of hands are vital to averting typhoid.
Reference List
American Academy of Pediatrics. [Salmonella Infections.] In: Pickering L.K., ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 26th Edition. Elk Grove Village, IL, American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003: 541– 547.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005. Typhoid Fever: Frequently Asked Questions. Web.
Evans, A., and Brachman, P., eds. (1991). Bacterial Infections of Humans: Epidemiology and Control, 2nd Edition. New York City, Plenum Publishing.
Giannella RA (1996). “Salmonella” Baron’s Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.) (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. pp 8 – 9.
Heymann, D., ed. (2004). Control of Communicable Diseases Manual, 18th Edition. Washington, DC, American Public Health Association.
MDPH. (1997). Foodborne Illness Investigation and Control Reference Manual. Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Web.
MDPH. (2005). Regulation 105 CMR 300.000: Reportable Diseases, Surveillance, and Isolation and Quarantine Requirements. MDPH.
Parry CM, Beeching NJ (2009). Treatment of enteric fever. BMJ338: b1159.
Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 13 – 14.