The development of arts and sciences, as well as old science in Islamic the empire, is explained by the inquisitive and speculative nature of the Arab people from long ago. Thus, there has always been a particular cultural attitude among the Arabian people before and after the rise of Islam. This cultural attitude is the need to advance their philological skills as well as the need to perfect their practice of etymology and lexicology (Sabra, 1975).
From constant observation of the earth, they were able to attain astrological, astronomical, and meteorological knowledge that they applied to their lifestyles. Further, with the advent of Islam, these Arabs focused on jurisprudence and philological sciences.
One other science that the people loved was the healing art, a profession that was only acquired by a minority of the population but was highly popular among the people due to the high demand for healing services.
Contribution to Mathematics
Arabs are credited with the invention of arithmetic. They essentially derived their knowledge of algebraic theories from two books. These are IX of Euclid’s Elements and the introduction to the science of numbers (Sabra, 1975).
The information obtained from the second book was later translated into the Arabic language by Thabit bin Qurrah, who also revised the information acquired from the first book titled Elements (Sabra, 1975).
Among the key things that Thabit did to contribute to this field of knowledge were his remarks on infinite collections. He espoused that infinite groups could be components of other infinite collections.
This idea is a fact, given that some even numbers happen to be natural numbers, yet both are infinite values. While it did not strike Thabit to try and develop a theory that would explain the idea of transfinite numbers, his statement was reflective of the exploratory and critical attitude present in most Arabians.
Gradually, the theory of figures progressed among Arabs with the need to explain the concept of irrational numbers. One of these developments was through the consideration of ratios as numbers. This was oblivious of whether they were incommensurable magnitudes of not (Sabra, 1975).
Astronomy
Traditional Arabic astronomical readings relied on Greek characters. This reliance was derived from the presumption that astronomy was an interpretation of both mathematical and physical premises. Resultantly, this prompted the Arabs to read many books, and one such book was the Planetary Hypotheses by Ptolemy.
However, this book was inadequate in converting scientific language into a physical language. In an attempt to present a better understating of astronomy, One Arabian, Ibn al-Haytham wrote the book Optics. The book explained various theoretical concepts like refraction, the reflection of light, as well as rectilinear propagation (Sabra, 1975).
It is through this research content that Kamal ad-Din was able to explain how the rainbow was formed. Through an analysis of the work by Al-Haytham, ad-Din was able to explain how both the primary and secondary bows are formed (Sabra, 1975).
Notably, the application of Arabian medieval research formed a basis through which other scientists and researchers were able to understand various scientific principles and phenomena (Sabra, 1975).
Internal and Clinical Medicine
All instances of healing in Islam are tied to the efforts of one Hunayn bin Ishaq al-Ibadi, who worked in liaison with his translators to ensure massive development in the world of medicine. Hunayn bin Ishaq is praised for his significant educational influence in the medical field, among which was his ability to convert the most important Greek medicinal writings into Arabic, through which a firm foundation for Arabic medicine was established (Hamarneh, 1983).
Further, this establishment also paved the way for the development, modification, and perfection of medicine art among the Arabian people. Among the principal contributions that Hunayn made to medicine, is that he wrote an article about the introduction to healing arts, also famous in Latin, which was a key precept for health sciences.
In effect, this writing was a great influence on the Islamic people, as well as other religions in regard to medical teachings and practical applications. Later, in the 19th century, there was a new development in the Arabic world with physician Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Zakariya ar-Razi emerging as a new star.
In effect, he was given the following names; the greatest physician, philosopher, and medical educator at the time. Through most of the works that he wrote, there was a significant advancement in medicine, with a particular interest in internal medicine (Hamarneh, 1983).
In fact, some of his creations, like psychiatric analysis, disease diagnosis, the doctor-patient relationship, chemotherapy, and treatment, are critical in today’s medical applications. Notably, his research on smallpox and measles enabled him to gain worldwide recognition.
Through his writing, he was able to make strategic development and come up with various brilliant ideas about smallpox. These were, among others, the symptoms associated with the disease, like headaches, fever, and redness of cheeks, among others. Other evident forms of signs that he discovered have been valuable in preventive day medicine.
Another Arabian medical scholar was al-Mukhtar bin Abdun bin Butland, who carried scholarly work on preservation and restoration of good health in medicine. It is this work that earned him numerous accolades in the medical field.
As a result, the publishing was later translated into Latin and published numerous times. Among the key things that he wrote about were the non-natural principles that had earlier been identified by Hunan. He further recommended that music is a core factor in enhancing patient morale and the key to ensuring faster patient recovery.
The second contribution of Arabic patrons in science is the development of hospitals and medical education. It is under the supervision of the Arab caliphs and during the Islamic period that hospitals first came into existence.
Essentially, most of the modern hospitals were constructed following the Arabian prototypes of medical facilities. The existence of these health care facilities and hospitals in the Arabian world served as a benchmark through which such facilities would be established around the world.
Notably, there were many hospitals in the Arab world, developed with the aim of promoting healthy societies and curing ailments, as well as with the need to teach and expand the knowledge of the people. It is under the Islamic domain that various hospitals operated during the 19th century with management and administration operations.
Owing to the nature of activities and services of the Audi hospital in Baghdad, its fame traveled all over the nations. Following its influential nature, most hospitals were developed in several large cities located all over the Muslim world.
Zoology and Veterinary Medicine
Before the advent of Islam, most Arab tribes had a profound way of life that meant that they were highly reliant on domestic animals for their survival. Among the factors that made them accustomed to animal rearing were the harsh climatic condition of the Arab land, their nomadic and semi-nomadic mode of living, and an economy that was highly reliant on trade and travel.
Thus, the rise of Islam and the outward movement of the Arabians created significant interest in animal husbandry as a type of science (Hamarneh, 1983). Notably, the first comprehensive animal study that occurred in the Arabian world was al Hayawan by al Jahiz.
The study by al Jahiz, as written in both eloquent and literal style, is meant to analyze animal life in Iraq, as well as in the neighboring cities. The article involved the analysis of different animal types, their behavior, and character traits, as well as the various diseases associated with them and how to treat them.
Some other literal works in the study of animal history dealt with particular issues like camels, sheep, and wild animals. However, one extensive work in the field of animal study was conducted at Hayat al Hayawan and drafted by one Egyptian philosopher, who is also a theologian.
This particular philosopher, Ad-Damiri, carefully analyzed animals by placing them in alphabetical order and discussing their character traits, their habits, and qualities, as well as the medicinal value that their organs bear. Just like other Arabian texts, this work involved some rudimentary concepts in evolution as well as how each of them struggles to survive.
Pharmacy and Pharmacology
Pharmacy, one of the most recognized professions, happens to be an Islamic/Arabic institution. Under the reign of Islam, this field became distinct from medicine, though it still collaborated with various medicinal aspects.
Among the first managed and owned pharmaceutical shops were established in Baghdad at the beginning of the ninth century. It is during this time that the number of drugs and spices available in the country increased following an abundant supply of supplies from Africa. Further, there was an increase in the number of military installations owing to a growing need for medicines (Hamarneh, 1983).
Thus, there was an increase in the number of pharmacy shops all over the Islamic cities. Following the degree of Arabic mastery in pharmaceutical dispensing, these medicines were manufactured and widely transported at the global marketplace and administered to people through the physicians depending on the severity of their illnesses.
Among the various forms of dispensation were troches, conservatives, pills, tinctures, and inhalations, among others. To ensure the proper administration of these medicines, most of them were skillfully prepared, and formulas for their creation tabulated in Arabic words.
Over time, these formulas were adopted by European countries, therefore, influencing the formulas and manufacture of these drugs. One renowned author for most Arabian formulas was Sabur Bin Sahl. Among the medicine formula that he was able to come up with is one that was composed of various recipes and medications with the ability to heal some diseases. After this, some discoveries were made in the pharmaceutical field, some of which were made by Ar- Razi and the two books by Ibn (Hamarneh, 1983).
Years later, Ibn was able to come up with various pharmaceutical compositions through which he offered instructions on how to prepare and administer several medications. It is this text that was adopted as the main reference for most pharmacists that were still learning pharmacy in major hospitals and shops.
Notably, the Arabs’ contribution to the field of medicine and the effects of drugs on human life is more than any contribution made by ancient people in this same field. In fact, the Arabs were able to discover a range of medicines in their simplest forms and were able to give precise descriptions of how and where these drugs would be located, their physical composition, and how they would be applied. Ideally, they explained how these drugs would be used as remedies and the various treatments and techniques applied during their manufacturing process.
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
Finally is the contribution to animal husbandry and agricultural science. Among the key tenets applied by the Arab people in the development of agricultural science were the teachings of the Nabateans and the Greeks. Notably, the al-Filahah ar Rumiyah, a famous Arabic manual, was developed from the Greek concepts of agriculture (Hamarneh, 1983).
Thus, with the expansion of Islam, both the agricultural and horticultural activities of the Arabian people became better. This also led to the publishing of various agricultural manuals in Arabic all over the eastern region and Andalusia.
Among the topics that these publications were based on included plant species, medicinal plants, animal husbandry, various farming techniques, how to cultivate, till and irrigate agricultural land, among others.
In effect, the manual was applied all over the Arab countries like Iraq, Egypt, and Syria. Other agricultural texts developed by the Arabs to guide on best farming practices were astrological matters concerning the right season to plant and the best locations for seed sowing and harvesting.
Overall Arabic contribution to the scientific world was at the highest time during the ninth and eleventh centuries. The inventions were later innovated and subjected to significant changes between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Notably, the West was also just awakening from the dark ages, meaning that they were welcome to read the bulk of Arabic literature translated into Latin. Thus, most of these Arabic authors are known for their contribution to the science field through their Latinized names. Thus, most of their literature was also primarily cited and read by people from the West.
References
Hamarneh, S. K. (1983). The life sciences. In R. J. Hayes (eds.), The genius of Arab civilization (2nd ed.) (pp. 95-113). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Sabra, A. I. (1975). The exact sciences. In R. J. Hayes (eds.), The genius of Arab civilization (2nd ed.) (pp. 80-94). Cambridge: MIT Press.