Iron and Glass Construction During and After the Industrial Revolution Research Paper

Introduction

Thousands of people are occupying and speculating inside a protected and incredibly big edifice as the shining light illuminates through the glass facade kept together by thin iron supports. There are no larger opaque walls enclosing the interior and creating small areas for the residents; similarly, there are no solid stone walls with small windows that block light from entering. The only enclosure is the building’s translucent envelope, which is made up of glass walls and a glass roof with iron frames. The entire structure is wide enough for mature trees to grow inside; it resembles a huge greenhouse. The old buildings before were mostly made of bricks and masonry, with little light and space available for people. The occupants were not used to feeling connected to the environment while inside the building and were able to experience the radiant sunlight as well as the greeneries all while inside the building. This creative reconstruction of the building’s architecture was once a ground-breaking idea in history, one that many historians and architects who followed have admired and used as a model.

Discussion

However, this architectural innovation dramatically increased the usage of iron and glass materials, which increased the demand for iron manufacturers for subsequent buildings whose designs were influenced by this breakthrough. By releasing copious amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, the production and widespread use of these materials have played a significant role in the development of the global warming catastrophe. Since the Industrial Revolution, when iron, glass, and other materials were first produced and used widely, the amount of carbon dioxide released from routine activities in the society has increased to a dangerous level.

The physical structure, which resembled a greenhouse, may have unintentionally predicted and actually helped to build the massive greenhouse that now envelops and harms the environment. Parallel to this, the innovative uses of iron and glass in architecture sped up the development of humanities and civilizations across time by making it possible to construct stronger structures more quickly. Given these facts, one is only left to speculate as to whether the advent of iron and glass architecture since the Industrial Revolution has aided humanity by creating an expressway for advancement. Alternatively, it has hampered humanity by leading to catastrophe through the development of global warming. Crystal Palace and Eifel Tower were the inspiration behind the adoption of glass and iron in construction, which contributed to the increase in global warming and climate change due to the emission of greenhouse gases.

Iron and glass were first used in architectural work during the construction of the Crystal Palace in 1851. The Crystal Palace was constructed primarily of cast iron and plate glass, and it was one of the first large-scale uses of these materials in a structural application. The use of iron and glass in architecture really took off in the late 1800s, with the construction of such landmarks as the Eiffel Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge. These structures were built primarily out of steel and concrete, but they would not have been possible without the earlier development of iron and glass technology.

The Crystal Palace was an immense cast-iron and glass structure that was designed by Joseph Paxton. It was erected in just nine months and measured over a 1000 feet long and hundreds of feet wide¹. “The achievement of the building of the Crystal Palace, designed to serve an unprecedented urgent need for an exhibition space which had to be constructed in nine months”². The palace was built to house the exhibits of the great exhibition, which were intended to show off the best of British industry and culture. The Crystal Palace was immensely popular with the public and helped to popularize the new technology of cast iron and plate glass. After the exhibition closed, it was relocated to Sydenham Hill in south London, where it served as a public park and recreation area for many years.

The Crystal Palace was an immense, cast-iron and plate-glass building that had a unique shape. “The ground plan of the building was a parallelogram, 1,851 feet long, by 456 feet wide in the broadest part, with a transept of 408 feet long. It also had 72 feet wide intersecting the building at right angles in the middle”³. The principal façade was toward the south, and it consisted of a central nave flanked by two aisles and terminated by semicircular galleries. The side walls rise in three stages, with the outer wall rising 24 feet above the ground, the second rising 20 feet higher, or 44 feet from the base of the pillars below. While the third rises 20 feet higher than the second, or 64 feet from the base of its supporting pillars, creating a 72-feet-wide central avenue inside the structure.

When the architects of the Crystal Palace building were looking for a way to make the structure more spacious and inviting, they chose to use glass instead of bulky opaque walls. This decision created an abundance of natural light which filled the space and made it feel much larger than expected⁴. The use of glass also had another benefit – it allowed visitors to see out and enjoy the view from inside the building. In fact, many people consider the Great Exhibition building to be one of the first examples of a truly modern, open space.

The materials used in the construction of the Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition building were glass, wood, and cast iron. Glass was used for the walls and roof of the structure, and cast iron was used for the framework. The use of glass and cast iron resulted in a building that was both strong and lightweight⁵. The cast iron framework enabled the structure to be erected quickly and easily. The columns were made of cast iron, and the beams and girders were made of wrought iron. The walls were made of plate glass, and the roof was made of sheet glass. The shadow was created by the placement of the columns and other large pieces of metal and wood; it also had a vaulted ceiling.

The purpose of the vaulted ceiling was to make the interior of the Crystal Palace as bright as possible. The iron and glass roof allowed in a lot of natural light, which helped to illuminate the exhibits inside. The Crystal Palace designer (Joseph Paxton) was inspired by greenhouses he had seen while visiting France. He wanted to create a building that would be equally beautiful and functional, and the vaulted ceiling was an important part of that design. The glass roof also helped to keep the building cool in summer and warm in winter. The use of glass and metal instead of heavy opaque walls created more space in the Crystal Palace building⁶. Initially, the buildings had solid walls and thus needed a lot of space between them to allow light and air to circulate. With glass walls, there is no need for this space so the whole building could be much smaller. The transparent walls allowed natural light to flood into the building, which reduced the need for artificial light. In addition, the openness of the design made the building feel larger than it was, which was important given that the exhibition hall was quite large.

On the other hand, the Eiffel Tower was a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris. It was named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower. The tower was built as part of the 1889 World’s Fair and was initially criticized by some of France’s leading artists and intellectuals⁷. But it has become an iconic symbol of Paris, France, and Europe. The tower is now the most visited paid monument in the world, with over 6 million visitors per year⁸. The Eiffel Tower was built with an iron frame that is covered in two thousand two hundred and forty-three pieces of riveted wrought iron. It is 324 meters (1,000 feet) high, weighs 7,300 metric tons (7,944 short tons), and is divided into two sections. “The two sections of the building were, of course, parallel but offset.”⁹. The shape of the tower was designed to mimic the curve of the Champs de Mars. The original plan was for a taller tower, but Gustave Eiffel’s successful bid for the Exposition Universelle meant that he could only build something shorter than his original design.

The tower’s distinctive shape is due to its design as a metal lattice structure. This allowed Gustave Eiffel to save on construction costs since the metal could be used instead of heavy masonry, which was the typical practice at the time. In fact, after the devastating fire at Notre Dame Cathedral in 2019, people looked to the Eiffel Tower as an example of how a structure should be built to resist fire damage¹⁰. The lattice also had the advantage of giving the tower great structural strength. It can withstand strong winds and is resistant to both earthquakes and fire.

Moreover, the glass and irons used in construction were extracted from the earth through a process called mining. Coal was burned to produce coke, which was then used to extract the desired minerals from the earth. The most common mineral extracted using this process was iron, but glass and other materials could also be mined in this way. The process of extracting these materials involves drilling into the earth and then burning the coal to produce coke. The coke is then used to extract the minerals from the surrounding rock. This process was very dangerous, as it often involved working with hazardous materials like coal and asbestos. It was important that workers take all necessary precautions to avoid injury while performing this type of work.

The process of extracting iron from the earth’s surface creates large amounts of carbon dioxide emissions. When the iron ore is mined, the topsoil is removed, and most of the trees in the area are chopped down. This left behind a barren landscape that is susceptible to erosion; the mining process itself also created emissions. The heavy machinery used to extract the ore emitted greenhouse gases, as well as the burning of fuels used to power the machinery¹¹. Once the iron was extracted, it was transported to factories, where it was turned into steel. This process similarly released emissions, likewise the production of pig iron from raw iron. All of these emissions contributed to global warming, which in turn led to climate change.

As a result of the increased use of iron and glass, there were increased cases of global warming. Firstly, the melting of the polar ice caps caused sea levels to rise; the danger of rising sea levels as a result of global warming is twofold. The increase in water levels caused significant flooding in coastal areas, which damaged homes and businesses and led to loss of life¹². Similarly, the rise in sea levels also contaminated freshwater resources with salt water, making them unusable for drinking or irrigation. This had a devastating effect on the world’s population, as it would limit access to one of the most precious resources.

Secondly, changes in climate caused crops to fail, leading to food shortages. There were a few ways that global warming led to food shortages. For one, as the Earth got warmer, the temperature range that crops could grow in became narrower. This meant that certain areas of the world which produced crops could no longer be able to do so in the future as their climates became too hot or too dry. Furthermore, global warming caused extreme weather conditions such as floods and droughts, which destroyed crops and contaminated water supplies used for irrigation. Finally, global warming also led to an increase in pests and diseases, which damaged crops or made them susceptible to infection. All of these factors together resulted in widespread food shortages and famine.

Thirdly, the increased intensity of storms and other extreme weather events caused destruction and loss of life. As the Earth’s temperature continued to rise, people expected to see more extreme weather events. These events caused destruction and loss of life; one of the most direct impacts of global warming was the intensity and frequency of storms¹³. Hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones are all powered by the heat energy in warm ocean waters. As oceans got warmer, these storms became more powerful and destructive. In addition to storm damage, global warming also increased the risk of drought and wildfires. These events led to the loss of human life as well as extensive damage to infrastructure and homes.

The industrial revolution brought about a massive increase in the use of fossil fuels, which released greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. These gases caused the earth’s atmosphere to trap more heat, which was why there were global warming and climate change. Additionally, deforestation and other human activities caused the loss of crucial rainforest habitats. The trees in these forests acted as natural carbon sinks, meaning they absorbed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When these trees were cut down, they essentially released all that stored-up carbon back into the atmosphere, exacerbating the global warming problem.

Conclusion

In conclusion, both Crystal Palace and Eiffel Tower are made of metal and glass. The two buildings were built with wrought and puddled iron. Wrought iron is tough and malleable, meaning it can be hammered into shape. Puddled iron is made by melting scrap iron in a furnace until it becomes a liquid, then pouring it into molds to create ingots. Crystal Palace was the first building in the world to be made entirely of cast-iron beams, girders, and columns. The metal was heated until it became liquid, then poured into molds to create the shapes required for the building. This process was invented by Joseph Paxton, who designed and built Crystal Palace. The iron was an invention that was used in building large buildings; it replaced the use of opaque big building blocks, which consumed bigger space and blocked natural light from reaching inside the building. The production of this metal, however, resulted in high levels of greenhouse gases that contributed to global warming. Both the Crystal Palace and the Eiffel Tower were testaments to human ingenuity and engineering prowess.

Bibliography

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Brown, Frederick. “Eiffel’s Tower.” New England Review (1990-) 29, no. 4 (2008): 7–24. Web.

Douglass, Kristina, and Jago Cooper. “Archaeology, environmental justice, and climate change on islands of the Caribbean and southwestern Indian Ocean.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 15 (2020): 8254-8262. Web.

Garcia-Castillo, E., I. Paya-Zaforteza, and A. Hospitaler. “Fire in heritage and historic buildings, a major challenge for the 21st century.” Developments in the Built Environment (2022): 100102. Web.

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Kihlstedt, Folke T. “The Crystal Palace.” Scientific American 251, no. 4 (1984): 132–43. Web.

Statista Research Department. “Paris: Number of Eiffel Tower Visitors 2021.” Statista, Web.

Stephenson, Roberts. The Great Exhibition: Its Palace, and Its Principal Contents; with Notices of the Public Buildings of the Metropolis, Places of Amusement, Etc. George Routledge and Company, Soho Square, 1851. Web.

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Wagner, Courtney L., Ioan Lascu, Peter C. Lippert, Ramon Egli, Kenneth JT Livi, and Helen B. Sears. “Diversification of iron‐biomineralizing organisms during the Paleocene‐Eocene Thermal Maximum: Evidence from quantitative unmixing of magnetic signatures of conventional and giant magnetofossils.” Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 36, no. 5 (2021): e2021PA004225. Web.

Footnotes

1. Barthes, Roland. “The Eiffel Tower.” AA Files, no. 64 (2012): 112–31.
2. Induni, Elizabeth. “Corrugated iron buildings in Britain: Cultural significance and conservation challenges.” (2020).
3. Stephenson, Roberts. The Great Exhibition: Its Palace, and Its Principal Contents; with Notices of the Public Buildings of the Metropolis, Places of Amusement, Etc. George Routledge and Company, Soho Square, 1851
4. Kihlstedt, Folke T. “The Crystal Palace.” Scientific American 251, no. 4 (1984): 132–43.
5. Kihlstedt, Folke T. “The Crystal Palace.” Scientific American 251, no. 4 (1984): 132–43.
6. Brown, Frederick. “Eiffel’s Tower.” New England Review (1990-) 29, no. 4 (2008): 7–24.
7. Statista Research Department. “Paris: Number of Eiffel Tower Visitors 2021.” Statista, November 15, 2022.
8. Vogel, Robert M. Elevator systems of the Eiffel Tower, 1889. DigiCat, 2022.
9. Garcia-Castillo, E., I. Paya-Zaforteza, and A. Hospitaler. “Fire in heritage and historic buildings, a major challenge for the 21st century.” Developments in the Built Environment (2022): 100102.
10. Wagner, Courtney L., Ioan Lascu, Peter C. Lippert, Ramon Egli, Kenneth JT Livi, and Helen B. Sears. “Diversification of iron‐biomineralizing organisms during the Paleocene‐Eocene Thermal Maximum: Evidence from quantitative unmixing of magnetic signatures of conventional and giant magnetofossils.” Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 36, no. 5 (2021): e2021PA004225.
11. Douglass, Kristina, and Jago Cooper. “Archaeology, environmental justice, and climate change on islands of the Caribbean and southwestern Indian Ocean.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 15 (2020): 8254-8262.
12. Douglass, Kristina, and Jago Cooper. “Archaeology, environmental justice, and climate change on islands of the Caribbean and southwestern Indian Ocean.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 15 (2020): 8254-8262.