Quantum Technologies’ Impact on National Security Thesis

Introduction

Quantum technology began as an attempt to translate quantum physics into the digital environment by creating tools and applications that would follow the principles of quantum physics. Despite its relative immaturity, quantum technologies represent an implication for humanity due to the possibilities linked to improvements in the fields of communications and encryption.¹ According to Bontekoe et al.², the term “quantum technology” can be defined as a quickly evolving subsection of physics that connects the fundamental properties of quantum to innovations in the field of technology. The fundamental concepts in quantum are superposition, quantum bits (qubits), and entanglement.³ The three areas of application of quantum technologies are quantum sensing, quantum computing, and quantum communications.⁴ Each of these represents a significant contributor to the discussion on the challenges linked to US national security. The current literature review is going to address the biggest opportunities and challenges associated with quantum technologies. It will be done to outline the possible areas of future research and evaluate the feasibility of quantum in association with national security.

Definitions

Superposition can be defined as the ability of a system based on quantum to exist simultaneously in two or more states.⁵

A quantum bit (qubit) is a computing unit that can be utilized to encode information while making the best use of the principle of superposition.⁶

Entanglement is a scenario where there are two interconnected quantum objects that influence each other regardless of how far apart they are located.⁷

Dual-use technology is a concept that relates to innovations that can be launched into both commercial production and the US defense strategy.⁸ Quantum technology is a typical representative of the dual-use conundrum because peacekeeping organizations can benefit from it just as much as their military counterparts.

Quantum warfare is a type of warfare that utilizes quantum technologies to contribute to innovative military strategies and scenarios aimed at the enhancement of national security.⁹ Despite being a relatively young domain, the number and prevalence of various developments in the area turn quantum warfare into one of the decisive factors responsible for the future of US national security. Subsequently, a quantum attack is a wrongful act aimed at a certain organization or the whole nation where quantum technologies are utilized to carry out the endeavor.¹⁰

Quantum sensing is one of the biggest venues of quantum technology application in the military field. It provides numerous battlefield advantages, such as improved navigation and positioning even across GPS-denied and GPS-degraded environments.¹¹ Quantum sensing could also bring advantages if applied to surveillance and intelligence collection. According to Taylor¹², technology-based warfare capabilities could be improved significantly with the aid of quantum sensing.

A quantum computer is a computing model that is intended to change the common computer builds and enhance processing speeds by a notch.¹³ Despite being in the earlier stages of development, quantum computing has already contributed to innovations in the fields of encryption, artificial intelligence, and machine learning.¹⁴ Quantum computers equipped with respective sensors could become a deadly combination both on and off the battlefield.

Quantum communications can be defined as a subcategory of quantum technologies where secure military networking becomes almost unbreachable while also expanding the number of environments where communications networks could be deployed.¹⁵ A data transmission that cannot be intercepted is one of the pillars of powerful national security.

Literature Review

Quantum Cybersecurity

The topic of quantum cybersecurity is exceptionally important because it relates to how asymmetric encryption and various intrusion prevention methods could be improved and deployed. It means that the current trends in the area contribute to how the military could employ machine learning and artificial intelligence to improve the current state of affairs in the field of quantum opportunities.¹⁶ Additionally, even quantum defense capabilities could be enhanced using these technologies, as hostile intelligence would be intercepted prior to disrupting military operations and the country’s infrastructure. Thus, the expectations associated with quantum cybersecurity are rather high because the amounts of confidential data keep growing unconditionally. The advent of new quantum paradigms also shows how data encryption lays the foundation for more data-driven research. The new resilient algorithms represent another central theme that has to be explored by researchers because many attackers and enemy armies also tend to investigate the potential ways of implementing quantum.¹⁷ Consequently, there are multiple ways in which quantum cybersecurity could alter national security completely.

Another crucial element of quantum cybersecurity is the snowballing number of solutions based on the Internet of Military Things. This sector represents a multitude of applications that have been developed in an attempt to help military personnel gain access to data regardless of their geolocation.¹⁸ Even though the majority of solutions are carefully protected against external and internal attacks, there are threats that can interfere with software implementation and hardware deployment. The cost of quantum cybersecurity is rather high as well, making it rather expensive to increase security and perform data analysis in real time. Despite powerful encryption capabilities, quantum solutions are heavily affected by vulnerabilities that can go live at any time. It can be assumed that quantum cybersecurity remains in the development stage, so stable quantum-safe solutions can be hard to find.¹⁹ New quantum system controls will have to be released to promote active research and avoid unprecedented obstacles to the employment of quantum technologies.

Quantum Computing Capabilities

Quantum computing capabilities have to be considered within the framework of the current literature review because classical computational capabilities no longer endure an ever-growing amount of data to be processed. This high complexity of the subject contributes to predictive capabilities of military systems and proper logistics and supply chain optimization.²⁰ The overall effectiveness of quantum computing easily surpasses its classical alternatives due to the enhanced use of artificial intelligence and machine learning. Quanta can be utilized by the military to embed qubits and perform exceptionally hard analytical tasks to streamline most operations.²¹ Hence, increased autonomy would reduce the extent to which human error penetrated military tasks. Quantum computing transforms information science and aids the military in terms of strengthening its agility and stealth capability. In accordance with Kania²², validation, and verification also became significantly safer due to the advent of quantum computing. Many practical simulations help the military address the challenge of situational awareness.

On the other hand, quantum computing can facilitate the processes of scouting, surveillance, and intelligence gathering. Quantum sensing and imaging are also utilized in quantum computing to ensure that all the data can be encoded, decoded, and filtered based on its properties. For the US military, it means that an understanding of how to apply quantum computing could impact the development of neural networks and the detection of behavioral patterns.²³ In addition, artificial intelligence and machine learning could be improved based on the development of relevant applications and thorough automation of military operations. There are also hybrid mechanisms that utilize the best of the new and the old machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms.²⁴ With the help of quantum computing, biometric cybersecurity could be established to enable coordination capabilities of the network infrastructure. A focus on situational awareness and technology implementation can be seen as the biggest research and development venue for national security. Even though these solutions tend to be perceived as futuristic, the US military implements quantum computing successfully to collect vital information and gain multiple competitive advantages in foreign affairs.

Quantum Communications Network

Quantum communications networking is the ultimate means of utilizing quanta and processing essential US military data sets. The variety of services utilized to ensure a secure communications network has to be considered because the number of interconnections keeps growing on a daily basis. For instance, vehicles, planes, drones, and even command centers could be managed using quantum technologies.²⁵ Thus, national security could benefit from the deployment of networks that are based on security applications that exploit quantum technologies. The most prevalent security application of quantum technologies is key distribution capability. Quantum key distribution suggests that unique tokens could be stored safely across the network while being concealed using quantum network applications.²⁶ Data encryption within quantum communications networks is strong enough to employ new protocols and predict user actions without any significant limitations. Complex data sets are collected by the system automatically to prevent future attacks and make sure that the quantum network is secure at any given moment.

One more capability that has to be reviewed when looking at quantum technologies in communications networks is the use of digital signature and quantum secure authentication. Consistent with Hassija et al.²⁷, quantum-based cryptography is significantly stronger than its conventional counterpart. Secure communications in the military should not depend on geolocation or access point availability. It means that national security could benefit from quantum-based networks when performing synchronization and increasing the precision of conveying data. Secret computation capabilities improve sensing and error-proofing while also helping military personnel ensure that the entire network is safe. Quantum entanglement sensors can be utilized to control drones, autonomous vehicles, and other military technologies without obstacles.²⁸ Networks that function on the basis of quantum technologies are heavily protected against data breaches and can be considered much more convenient than their classical alternatives.

Outcomes and Challenges Associated with Quantum Technologies and National Security

The development and deployment of new technologies always create digital and ethical conundrums for engineers and end-users. Therefore, quantum technologies can be expected to impose a certain level of responsibility on the US military due to the new challenges that would transpire over time. For example, Dunjko and Wittek²⁹ suggested that quantum warfare was a rather complex subject that would alter the technical realization of certain strategies and policies. It should be essential for scholars and developers to understand the implications of new technologies because the advent of new threats cannot be predicted. Given that quantum computing goes way beyond basic military applications, it represents a significant issue for national security on a long-term scale. To address these problems, it can be useful to divide them into several categories: implications for the military, ethical challenges, and technical issues.

Implications of Quantum Technologies for the US Military

The existing literature on the subject revolves around the idea that the present capabilities of the US military are not strong enough to ensure guaranteed national security on all levels. This means that quantum warfare should be implemented to close the gaps associated with secure communication, accurate navigation applications, and overall computing capabilities.³⁰ The need for an update stems from the abundance of legacy code and instruments that cannot be removed or replaced quickly. The strategic ambitions of the American government require significant enhancements in the fields of national policies required to regulate technology. The core problem with quantum technologies at this point is the lack of financial backing that might alleviate some of the development and deployment issues.³¹ Quantum warfare should be treated as a valuable asset, but no risky strategies should be carried out in order to prevent negative outcomes on all public and private levels. The growing amounts of classified data and ready-for-transmission information make it safe to say that quantum technologies represent the primary option for US national security.

Ethical Challenges Linked to Quantum Technologies and National Security

Most American applications of quantum technologies can be deemed precise and useful. Nevertheless, the biggest question that has to be answered when discussing the contribution made by quantum technology engineers is how world peace could be maintained.³² The existence of strong computing capabilities makes it impossible to overlook the impact of information security on quantum technologies and vice versa. In other words, the lack of detailed ethical guidelines is a crucial problem for the American government that cannot be manipulated at the moment. Hence, quantum technologies are not utilized as mere weapons, but they are perceived as sources of decision-making assistance and capability-sharpening instruments.³³ The risks that transpire upon exposure to quantum technologies are becoming significantly more impactful due to the amount of information that is learned by respective machines. The goal of the American government is to establish a reliable national security framework that would reduce the prevalence of digital threats and surpass conventional computing systems in terms of performance.

Technical Issues Associated with Quantum Technologies

The worst technical issue the American government would have to cope with when establishing quantum-based national security measures would be the quantum workforce. Accordingly, the lack of knowledgeable engineers and testers would leave the military exposed to the growing amount of information in the quantum space without the ability to process it quickly.³⁴ Quantum sensing, computing, and communications totally depend on how skillful the engineers are responsible for establishing all the connections. Military personnel does not get access to enough background evidence, meaning that the quantum infrastructure might be designed and deployed with multiple vulnerabilities onboard.³⁵ Quantum data transmission is another technical challenge that has not been resolved by the US national security engineers yet. The inability to manage quantum technologies in a standardized manner makes it harder for the government to establish data transmission, evaluation, and processing protocols.³⁶ Thus, a powerful quantum network might be developed only in the case where all the secondary variables have been considered.

Conclusion

Quantum technologies play an exceptional role in the process of establishing powerful national security measures for the United States. The ability to control and manipulate quantum data makes it easier for the end-users to disrupt the military field and find new ways to unlock the true potential of numerous applications of quanta. Most importantly, quite a few quantum technologies are not deployed solely for military purposes, as the principle of dual-use is actively implemented to benefit the commercial sector as well. However, the number of potential possibilities to utilize quantum technologies to enhance the military capacity of the US keeps growing. From the basic quantum principles being followed and observed to those being demonstrated and applied to relevant environments, quantum technologies represent the future of US national security. Despite certain limitations and proneness to unexpected errors, the government should be able to invest in quantum technologies to protect the country from unwanted attacks.

Based on the information obtained within the framework of the current literature review, it can be concluded that the majority of military applications of quantum technologies should evolve in the future. Such vital transformations will be associated with breakthrough capabilities and improvements. The current research project is going to investigate how the government might alter policies, tactics, and strategies that are utilized to maintain global peace with the aid of quanta. Real-time assessments and a thorough outlook on ethics issues linked to quantum technologies can be helpful when establishing a safer quantum warfare environment. The current literature review also showed how various technologies based on quanta might be utilized to forecast real-world changes caused by military actions or the lack thereof. Classical security and warfare systems are hardly comparable to their quantum-based alternatives because the latter display better performance and generate responses and reports much more quickly. Nevertheless, an overly optimistic outlook on quantum technologies should be mediated by a relatively realistic assessment of how the most prevalent challenges could harm US national security.

Another important conclusion that can be made when discussing the contents of the literature review is the hidden potential of long-term, strategic implications linked to quantum technologies. Even though there is almost no room for unprecedented changes, the potential for new challenges arising due to innovation is rather high. The multitude of quantum applications shows that the US government is not afraid to experiment and invest in quantum technologies despite a rather high chance of losing money or exposing military intelligence to other countries. Thus, with careful implementation of quantum technologies, US national security can be expected to generate even more applications and tools based on innovation. With some of the challenges being more visible than others, it can be claimed that the government pays enough attention to quantum technologies and their influence on national security. It is clear that quantum computing capabilities are exceptionally high and have to be cultivated further for improved national security.

Ultimately, the current state of quantum technologies within the framework the US national security can be defined as highly developed. It means that the issues identified within the framework of the current literature review have already been identified and addressed by respective agencies. Continual application innovation will guide military research in the future, creating additional venues for warfare enhancements and more mindful deployments. The literature review showed that modern quantum computing technologies possess an inherent potential that will serve as a critical contributor to improved military strategies. Further research will also cover quantum computing standardization because of the growing number of tools that affect data storage, encryption, and transmission. Overall, there are quite a few upsides to the utilization of quanta in the field of national security that are equipoised by several challenges that cannot be resolved at the moment.

Bibliography

Aliabadi, Fatemeh, Mohammad-Hassan Majidi, and Saeed Khorashadizadeh. “Chaos Synchronization Using Adaptive Quantum Neural Networks and Its Application in Secure Communication and Cryptography.” Neural Computing and Applications 34, no. 8 (2022): 6521-6533.

Bontekoe, Tariq H., Niels MP Neumann, Frank Phillipson, and Robert S. Wezeman. “Quantum Computing for Radar and Sonar Information Processing.” In Quantum Information Science, Sensing, and Computation XIV, vol. 12093, pp. 90-101. SPIE, 2022.

Cavaliere, Fabio, Enrico Prati, Luca Poti, Imran Muhammad, and Tommaso Catuogno. “Secure Quantum Communication Technologies and Systems: From Labs to Markets.” Quantum Reports 2, no. 1 (2020): 80-106.

Der Derian, James, and Alexander Wendt. “‘Quantizing International Relations’: The Case for Quantum Approaches to International Theory and Security Practice.” Security Dialogue 51, no. 5 (2020): 399-413.

Dunjko, Vedran, and Peter Wittek. “A Non-Review of Quantum Machine Learning: Trends and Explorations.” Quantum Views 4 (2020): 32.

Fiott, Daniel. Protecting Europe in the Age of Quantum Computing and the Cloud. United Nations Institute for Security Studies, 2020. Web.

Hassija, Vikas, Vinay Chamola, Adit Goyal, Salil S. Kanhere, and Nadra Guizani. “Forthcoming Applications of Quantum Computing: Peeking into the Future.” IET Quantum Communication 1, no. 2 (2020): 35-41.

Kania, Elsa B. “New Frontiers of Chinese Defense Innovation: Artificial Intelligence and Quantum Technologies.” SITC Research Briefs 12 (2018), 1-5. Web.

Krelina, Michal. “Quantum Technology for Military Applications.” EPJ Quantum Technology 8, no. 1 (2021), 24–77.

Lele, Ajey. Quantum Technologies and Military Strategy. Springer, 2021.

Lyn Paul, Celeste, Leslie M. Blaha, Corey K. Fallon, Cleotilde Gonzalez, and Robert S. Gutzwiller. “Opportunities and Challenges for Human-Machine Teaming in Cybersecurity Operations.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 63, no. 1 (2019), 442-446.

Orr, Will, and Jenny L. Davis. “Attributions of Ethical Responsibility by Artificial Intelligence Practitioners.” Information, Communication & Society 23, no. 5 (2020), 719-735.

Rawat, Bhupesh, Nidhi Mehra, Ankur S. Bist, Muhamad Yusup, and Yulia P. Sanjaya. “Quantum Computing and AI: Impacts & Possibilities.” ADI Journal on Recent Innovation (AJRI) 3, no. 2 (2022), 202-207.

Routray, Sudhir K., Abhishek Javali, Anindita Sahoo, K. P. Sharmila, and Sharath Anand. “Military Applications of Satellite Based IoT.” In 2020 Third International Conference on Smart Systems and Inventive Technology (ICSSIT), pp. 122-127. IEEE, 2020.

Smith III, Frank L. “Quantum Technology Hype and National Security.” Security Dialogue 51, no. 5 (2020): 499-516.

Taddeo, Mariarosaria, David McNeish, Alexander Blanchard, and Elizabeth Edgar. “Ethical Principles for Artificial Intelligence in National Defence.” Philosophy & Technology 34, no. 4 (2021), 1707-1729.

Taylor, Richard D. “Quantum Artificial Intelligence: A “Precautionary” US approach?” Telecommunications Policy 44, no. 6 (2020): 101909.

Waelen, Rosalie. “Why AI Ethics Is a Critical Theory.” Philosophy & Technology 35, no. 1 (2022), 1-16.

Wang, Lidong, and Cheryl A. Alexander. “Quantum Science and Quantum Technology: Progress and Challenges.” American Journal of Electrical and Electronic Engineering 8, no. 2 (2020), 43-50.

Winfield, Alan F. “Experiments in Artificial Theory of Mind: From Safety to Story-Telling.” Frontiers in Robotics and AI 5 (2018), 1-13.

Footnotes

1. Bhupesh Rawat, Nidhi Mehra, Ankur S. Bist, Muhamad Yusup, and Yulia P. Sanjaya. “Quantum Computing and AI: Impacts & Possibilities.” ADI Journal on Recent Innovation (AJRI) 3, no. 2 (2022), 202-207
2. Tariq H. Bontekoe, Niels MP Neumann, Frank Phillipson, and Robert S. Wezeman. “Quantum Computing for Radar and Sonar Information Processing.” In Quantum Information Science, Sensing, and Computation XIV, vol. 12093, pp. 90-101. SPIE, 2022.
3. Celeste Lyn Paul, Leslie M. Blaha, Corey K. Fallon, Cleotilde Gonzalez, and Robert S. Gutzwiller. “Opportunities and Challenges for Human-Machine Teaming in Cybersecurity Operations.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 63, no. 1 (2019), 442-446.
4. Fiott, Daniel. Protecting Europe in the Age of Quantum Computing and the Cloud. United Nations Institute for Security Studies, 2020. Web.
5. Ajey Lele. Quantum Technologies and Military Strategy. Springer, 2021.
6. Lele, 2021, p. 45.
7. Lyn Paul et al. “Opportunities and Challenges,” p. 444.
8. Bontekoe et al. “Quantum Computing,” p. 96.
9. Lele, 2021, p. 59.
10. Rawat et al. “Quantum Computing and AI,” p. 203.
11. Lele, 2021, p. 67.
12. Richard D. Taylor “Quantum Artificial Intelligence: A “Precautionary” US approach?” Telecommunications Policy 44, no. 6 (2020): 101909.
13. James Der Derian, and Alexander Wendt. “‘Quantizing International Relations’: The Case for Quantum Approaches to International Theory and Security Practice.” Security Dialogue 51, no. 5 (2020): 399-413.
14. Bontekoe et al. “Quantum Computing,” p. 97
15. Taylor “Quantum Artificial Intelligence”
16. Der Derian and Wendt. “‘Quantizing International Relations’,” p. 402.
17. Will Orr, and Jenny L. Davis. “Attributions of Ethical Responsibility by Artificial Intelligence Practitioners.” Information, Communication & Society 23, no. 5 (2020), 719-735.
18. Fatemeh Aliabadi, Mohammad-Hassan Majidi, and Saeed Khorashadizadeh. “Chaos Synchronization Using Adaptive Quantum Neural Networks and Its Application in Secure Communication and Cryptography.” Neural Computing and Applications 34, no. 8 (2022): 6521-6533.
19. Sudhir K. Routray, Abhishek Javali, Anindita Sahoo, K. P. Sharmila, and Sharath Anand. “Military Applications of Satellite Based IoT.” In 2020 Third International Conference on Smart Systems and Inventive Technology (ICSSIT), pp. 122-127. IEEE, 2020.
20. Routray et al. “Military Applications of Satellite Based IoT,” p. 124.
21. Orr and Davis. “Attributions of Ethical Responsibility,” p. 725.
22. Elsa B. Kania “New Frontiers of Chinese Defense Innovation: Artificial Intelligence and Quantum Technologies.” SITC Research Briefs 12 (2018), 1-5.
23. Kania “New Frontiers of Chinese Defense Innovation,” p. 2.
24. Bhupesh Rawat et al. “Quantum Computing and AI: Impacts & Possibilities,” p. 204
25. Michal Krelina. “Quantum Technology for Military Applications.” EPJ Quantum Technology 8, no. 1 (2021), 24–77.
26. Alan F. Winfield “Experiments in Artificial Theory of Mind: From Safety to Story-Telling.” Frontiers in Robotics and AI 5 (2018), 1-13.
27. Vikas Hassija, Vinay Chamola, Adit Goyal, Salil S. Kanhere, and Nadra Guizani. “Forthcoming Applications of Quantum Computing: Peeking into the Future.” IET Quantum Communication 1, no. 2 (2020): 35-41.
28. Mariarosaria Taddeo, David McNeish, Alexander Blanchard, and Elizabeth Edgar. “Ethical Principles for Artificial Intelligence in National Defence.” Philosophy & Technology 34, no. 4 (2021), 1707-1729.
29. Vedran Dunjko, and Peter Wittek. “A Non-Review of Quantum Machine Learning: Trends and Explorations.” Quantum Views 4 (2020): 32.
30. Rosalie Waelen. “Why AI Ethics Is a Critical Theory.” Philosophy & Technology 35, no. 1 (2022), 1-16.
31. Taddeo et al. “Ethical Principles for Artificial Intelligence in National Defence,” p. 1717.
32. Fabio Cavaliere, Enrico Prati, Luca Poti, Imran Muhammad, and Tommaso Catuogno. “Secure Quantum Communication Technologies and Systems: From Labs to Markets.” Quantum Reports 2, no. 1 (2020): 80-106.
33. Waelen. “Why AI Ethics Is a Critical Theory,” p. 11.
34. Frank L. Smith III “Quantum Technology Hype and National Security.” Security Dialogue 51, no. 5 (2020): 499-516.
35. Aliabadi, Majidi, and Khorashadizadeh. “Chaos Synchronization,” p. 6528.
36. Lidong Wang, and Cheryl A. Alexander. “Quantum Science and Quantum Technology: Progress and Challenges.” American Journal of Electrical and Electronic Engineering 8, no. 2 (2020), 43-50.