Introduction
The influence of the Greek revival on American architecture is contained in the book, The Antiques of Athens, which Stuart and Revett published. It lasted for about 30 years (the 1820s to the 1850s). Other historical works give a wider window of influence by saying that the Greek revival spanned from 1810 to 1850.
Some researchers say it was adopted best in America (compared to other parts of the world) because they applied in different types of buildings, including churches, courthouses, office buildings, residential buildings, government buildings and such like architectural works. Therefore, compared to other architectural influences that affected America before the civil war, the Greek revival emerges as the most prolific. Its numbers and geographical spread across America demonstrate this fact. Indeed, CRT says,
West of the Appalachians, Greek Revival buildings represent a great many communities’ earliest architectural heritage. And in a poetical sense, if there were an architectural stamp to mark a young flourishing America, still largely agrarian and Jeffersonian, where the greatest minds were still engaged in perfecting society, rather than in commerce, it would be the Greek Revival.
The revival permeated the American society through instructional pattern books, which provided new architects with all the information they needed to design new buildings that replicated the architectural style. Some of the notable books, which inspired a new generation of American architects, include The American Builder’s Companion, the Builder’s Assistant, and Beauties of Modern Architecture.
This paper argues that among the greatest motivations for the adoption of Greek architectural styles in America was the association of Greek architecture with democracy, nationalism, and American prosperity. Furthermore, the adaptability of Greek architecture made it easy for Americans to replicate it in their country.
This paper argues that the Greek revival influenced American architecture because the United States (US) valued freedom and tradition that manifested through Greek architecture. In this regard, they put their inspiration into architecture. From this background, this paper demonstrates that the Americans see the Greek revival as a symbol of their identity. Furthermore, it shows that its adoption was unlimited to America because other countries also adopted the same depiction of Greek architecture (as a symbol of their identity).
Origin of Greek Architecture from Europe
The Greek revival influenced American architecture because the US started to learn about Europe’s success in the same discipline and replicated its values and designs in architecture. A typical Greek-inspired building is either one story or two and a half stories high. Such buildings also had low-pitched roofs and ridges that were perpendicular to the street. From this format, the end gable looked like the pediment of a classical temple. Typically, cornice frieze and architrave would cover the entire building. These items formed the motif of a full entablature. They furthered the temple front and occasionally returned deeply under the gable end. In some designs, the gable end extended to a porch that had columns. Some architects used wide pilasters to create the image of a temple front. The diagram below depicts this design
Many historical works show that Thomas Jefferson was a pioneer in the introduction of Greek architecture to America. His works trace to the early 1800s when he appointed surveyors to work on different public buildings in the United States (US). Henry Latrobe was also a notable surveyor of the time. He designed several public and residential buildings in the country, such as the capitol building and the Pennsylvania Bank. His work on the capitol building was notable during the early development of American architecture because it was free of historical precedent. This is why it contains motifs such as tobacco leaves and corn cobs. This building symbolized a period of American idiosyncrasy. It was synonymous with the American attitude towards Greek detailing. Although most of the work he did at the Capitol did not survive to date, traces of his contributions exist in the building’s interior design. The Supreme Court building and the Basilica of the assumption of the Virgin Mary are other notable buildings in America, which still depict some form of Greek architectural designs. Historians credit Latrobe for introducing Greek architecture in America through his global travels. The cathedral that he built in Baltimore (Basilica of the assumption of the Virgin Mary) was among his first and notable products of Greek architectural infusion in America’s construction industry.
Symbol of Prosperity
After the consolidation of American states and the subsequent prosperity of the US after the industrial revolution, America took pride in promoting its acquired sense of prosperity. It portrayed its success in different ways. The architecture was one of them. In this regard, many significant buildings in some of the country’s cities and states represented this fact. For example, Keith says that federal architecture was a symbol of urban prosperity in the US. Pelican also supports this fact by saying the adoption of Greek architecture was a demonstration of America’s triumphant sense of prosperity. According to Argyro, the Greek revival became dominant throughout the country in this way. From this background, observers termed it the national style. The Greek revival was predominant in America’s architectural space until the civil war.
Since the Greek revival was appropriate to America’s prosperity, most of its houses, town halls, and banks became synonymously associated with Greek architecture. The Second Bank of the United States is one such building that symbolized the peak of this period. Developers built it in Philadelphia from 1819 and 1824. Although the Greek revival spread to different states across the country, each region adopted the design with unique regional influences. Therefore, there were different variations to the traditional Greece architectural design. However, the fastest-growing regions of the country had the strongest influence on traditional Greece architecture because they developed during the peak of the Greek revival. For example, New Orleans adopted many architectural designs of the Greek revival period because it was growing during the peak of the Greek revival. James Gallier’s “Three Sister Project” in New Orleans is a notable landmark that represents the Greek revival. Built in 1834, as a residential property, the building stands out as a reminder of the influence of Greek architecture in America. Gallier was among the few architectural pioneers in the South who championed the adoption of Greek architecture, which thereafter developed to change part of the look of the Southern States, such as New Orleans and Mississippi. Gallier’s motivation for championing Greek architecture stemmed from his belief that “the character of the genuine architecture of the Greeks, in their brightest days… is that of an imposing grandeur united to pleasing simplicity, the elegance of ornament, and harmony of proportion in an eminent degree.”
Mississippi was among some states in America that supported the adoption of the Greek revival. This is why the state has among the largest and widest collections of Greek revival buildings. Different reasons explain why the Greek revival was popular in the state. First, like New Orleans, the state’s period of growth and prosperity coincided with the adoption and growth of the Greek revival. Furthermore, the architectural style of the Greek revival adapted to several climatic issues of the South. For example, its columns helped to foil extreme climatic conditions in the South. Similarly, they symbolized the democratic spirit of Andrew Jackson, a national hero in the south. The Greek revival also gave many residents of Mississippi the means of reconciling their belief in the pursuit of American prosperity. Ironically, it also encapsulated their desire to foster slavery and push Native Americans out of their land.
Symbol of National Identity
The Greek revival heralded a period of growing national identity in America. Characterizing the spirit of nationalism, the adoption of the Greek revival was partly out of an appeal for a new architectural fashion and partly out of a conscious effort to adopt appealing aesthetic features of ancient Greek forms. Historians attribute the book, Antiquities of Athens, as the first attempt to publicize Greek forms, in Europe and later in the US. As a young country that was emerging from the past of British colonialism, America was eager to adopt a new spirit of nationalism. The Greeks provided them with an opportunity to do so. By inheriting Greece’s democratic ideals, America perceived itself as the new Athens. This movement spread throughout the Midwest and part of America’s East Coast. Many cities adopted Greek architecture in this regard.
Most of the influences came from notable Greek cities such as Corinth, Athens, and Ithaca. Relative to this assertion, Patti’s works contain excerpts of developers of the time who said, “In these towns, we built city halls, banks, churches, houses, even outhouses, with orders borrowed from the Parthenon or the Tower of the Winds, for example, and ornamented with palmettes, fretwork, and friezes.” Decorative arts and dresses also adopted the Greek methodology. In fact, during the time, the adoption of Greek architectural styles represented America’s first and only national style. As highlighted in this paper, the spread of the national style occurred through publications, such as the Sixth Edition of the American Builders’ Companion. The book, Practical House Carpenter, published in 1830 also partly contributed to the spread of the Greek brand as a nationalistic style. From the publications, named above, many builders learned old concepts of the Greek revival and applied them in their hometowns. Although the Greeks inspired their buildings, they were wholly American in spirit.
According to Craven, many architects in both the public and domestic fronts believed that the Greek revival architecture was the dominant American style. Americans were at the forefront of building monumental structures and according to Loukaki, undoubtedly, Americans knew these structures represented who they were as a people. Based on this analysis, most of the structures built during this period were merely an act of self-expression, or an appeal for functionality, as some historians propose. For example, the proliferation of neoclassic temples shows that most of the buildings designed during the period symbolized the quest for Americans to find a national identity. Therefore, the civilization that influenced American political and cultural spaces did not only occur in the country’s governance documents but also its physical landscape. Based on this understanding, Loukaki asks that if the inspiration for America’s nationality came from Greece and Roman influences, what better way was there to express these influences than through civic architecture.
Symbol of Democracy
According to Bingaman and Sanders, the Greek revival was a serious contender as America’s dominant national style during the mid-1800s. At the time, the Greek revival was synonymous with democracy, and America was carving a name for itself as a global democratic hub. According to the above-mentioned authors, many Americans who lived in the 19th century believed that ancient Greece was synonymous with democracy. Furthermore, they believed the country’s success came from its association with Greece, as a symbol of democratic prosperity (many Americans believed the nation was a spiritual descendant of Greece). To them, Greece was the birthplace of modern democracy. During this time, British architectural influences had waned, especially after the 1812 war. Instead, Americans were attracted to Greece through its internal struggles for independence from Turkey. Indeed, during the time, the Greeks were rebelling from the Ottoman Empire, headed by the Turks.
Americans identified with this struggle and drew their democratic inspiration from the Greeks. Some proponents of the Greek revival shared a deep resentment for everything Roman. From their sentiments, they considered the arch as an abomination to the architectural beauty of Greek architecture. At the time, proponents of the Renaissance period opposed everything gothic (more details about the gothic revival appear in later sections of this paper). From the positive sentiments about Greece, historians say that many buildings in Philadelphia started adopting Greek architectural designs. European-trained architects spearheaded this trend. Besides public buildings, they designed many residential houses in the south (especially of large landowners) using Greek architectural styles. Supporting this assertion, Bingaman and Sanders say, “With its classic clapboard exterior and bold, simple lines, Greek Revival architecture became the most predominant housing style in the United States.” In this regard, America shared a social and political connection with Greece.
The presentation of the Greek revival as a symbol of American democracy explains why American architects incorporated it into the design of monumental government buildings, such as the Supreme Court building. Notably, the Supreme Court building is a symbol of democracy in America’s political system. In this regard, the Greek order served to exemplify American values of stability and its belief in an egalitarian society. Based on this assertion, Eggener says, “Many Americans were indeed proud of the connections between their society and the democratic principles of Ancient Greece, and sometimes they did draw an equation between the greatness of Greek art and their cultural potential and political preferences.” This is why Latrobe suggested the need for adopting American architecture with the age of the society. In the same breath, he also emphasized the need for using Greek architecture to epitomize America’s republican simplicity.
From the movement, many European-trained architectures (working in America) designed significant structures in America to represent the country’s symbol of democracy. As mentioned in this paper, enthusiasts of the Greek revival adopted the classic style of Greek architecture through the design of public buildings in selected American states. For example, in the 1770s, Jefferson developed a plan to build the governor’s mansion using Greek architectural styles. Around the same period, he also started plans to build America’s capital. The building took several years to complete and included the contribution of six architects. In 1812, Jefferson declared that the building represented America’s sovereignty and democracy. Similarly, he said that the building represented the values of a nation that was looking beyond the range of Athenian destinies. Besides Jefferson, Nicolas Biddle was also another influential person in the adoption of the Greek revival style in America. His influence appeared through his presidency of the Second Bank of the United States where he encouraged different branches of the bank to adopt this style.
The high-style period of the Greek revival architecture mostly flourished in the Eastern United States. Albeit this style was popular among elitist groups in America, its adoption was unlimited to this socioeconomic group. This is why the architectural style appeared in farmsteads and houses throughout the Midwest. Many architects struggled with infusing new functions in public and private buildings that adopted the classical architectural design. The adoption of this style culminated in the reversal of roles where carpenters took precedent in developing this style, as opposed to architects. Nonetheless, developers took distances from the classical models as well. Stated differently, they were critical of the development of the fledgling American republic.
Comparison to Gothic Revival in England
The gothic revival started in the late 1740s in England. It did not have a strong functional appeal because it catered to a highly ornamental and decadent style. Most observers say its designs were visually powerful and intricate. In this regard, the gothic style has strict adherence to specific structures. Similarly, the gothic revival encapsulated the romantic literary and poetic spirit of the time. The picture below shows an example of a gothic-inspired house
The works of notable architects, such as Horace Walpole and Alfred Tennyson, demonstrated this fact. The popularity of the gothic revival peaked in the early 19th century. It is relevant to this paper’s analysis because researchers have shown how it carries a specific meaning to the history of architecture. According to Eggener, one specific meaning of the gothic revival was the romantic celebration of the Middle age spirit. At the same time, the gothic revival represented the architectural and philosophical conviction of its proponents. However, this meaning only appeared in its later and more serious forms. Many proponents of this architectural type believed that the gothic revival could reinvigorate their moral philosophies.
The Greek revival, in America, draws comparisons with the gothic English revival because they both represented strong values that existed at the time. However, America was a colony of the British. As highlighted in this paper, the Greek revival captured its quest for freedom and a new identity. Concisely, this paper has already emphasized this fact in the portrayal of the Greek revival as a symbol of America’s national identity and its significance of America’s prosperity. Unlike the gothic revival, which had a more aesthetic significance, as opposed to a cultural significance, the adoption of the Greek revival in America had a strong cultural significance to the American people than other forms of architectural designs that preceded it. However, the Greek revival and the gothic revival share similarities because they shared similar goals and used similar means to attain those goals. For example, the gothic revival celebrated the spirit of the middle ages and the Greek revival celebrated classical archeology.
Conclusion
This paper has argued that among the greatest motivations for the adoption of Greek architectural styles in America was its association with democracy, nationalism, and American prosperity. Furthermore, the adaptability of Greek architecture to American ideals made it easy for Americans to replicate it in their country. This paper has also argued that the Greek revival influenced American architecture because the United States (US) valued freedom and tradition that manifested through adoption of the Greek architecture. In this regard, Americans put their inspiration in architecture. From this background, this paper demonstrates that the Americans see the Greek revival as a symbol of their identity. Furthermore, it shows that its adoption was unlimited to America because other countries also adopted the same depiction of Greek architecture (as a symbol of their identity). The adoption of the gothic revival in Great Britain demonstrates this fact.
In this regard, this paper shows that the Greek revival was among the earliest and most legitimizing forms of governance that cemented American democracy and its political ideals. From this analysis, this paper has shown that the Greek revival helped to generate republican democracy (which manifested through the spirit of nationalism) and social cohesion that should have defeated class conflict in the US. In this regard, the findings of this paper show that the popularity of the Greek revival mostly comes from America’s admiration for the democratic struggles of the Greek, under the Ottoman Empire. Concisely, the Greek revival symbolized different types of liberties in America. Therefore, the Greek revival was both a polemical and political phenomenon in America.
Works Cited
Bingaman, Amy, and Lise Sanders. Embodied Utopias: Gender, Social Change and the Modern Metropolis. London, Routledge, 2003.
Black, Patti. Art in Mississippi, 1720-1980. Mississippi: Univ. Press of Mississippi, 1998.
Craven, Jackie. “1825 – 1860: Greek Revival House Style.”About Architecture. Web.
CRT. “The Greek Revival Style.”About Architecture. Web.
Eggener, Keith. American Architectural History: A Contemporary Reader. New York, Psychology Press, 2004.
Giguere, Joy. Characteristically American: Memorial Architecture, National Identity, and the Egyptian Revival. Tennessee: Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2014.
Hamlin, Talbot. Greek Revival Architecture in America: Being an Account of Important Trends in American Architecture and American Life Prior to the War Between the States. New York: Dover Publications, 1964.
Historic New England. “Architectural Style Guide.”HNE. Web.
Loukaki, Argyro. Living Ruins, Value Conflicts. London: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2008. Pelican. Creating Your Architectural Style. New York: Pelican Publishing, 2009.